COVID-19 Anxiety in Children and Its Relationship with Self-Related Skills of Executive Functions
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Abstract
Objective: Some children experience a significant deal of anxiety during the outbreak of COVID-19. Behavioral dimensions of the executive function appear to link to situational anxiety experience. Therefore, the primary aim of the present study is to investigate the relationship between self-related skills of executive functions and the level of anxiety in children (8-12-years-old) during the outbreak of COVID-19. Also, the secondary goal of this study is to predict the level of anxiety based on self-related skills of executive functions.
Method: Parents of 300 children filled out the Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale (BDEFS) and the COVID-19 anxiety scale. Data were analyzed using correlation and path analysis. A significance level of less than 0.05 was set for all tests. Data were analyzed using SPSS 22 software.
Results: Results demonstrated that self-related skills of executive functions can predict 28% of COVID-19 anxiety. The subscales of self-management (P < 0.015, t = 5.56), self-regulation (P < 0.011, t = 6.37), self-restraint (P < 0.035, t = 4.29) and emotional self-organization (P < 0.042, P = 0.222) predicted coronavirus anxiety, but self-motivation (P < 0.05, P = 0.894) did not.
Conclusion: Given that most subscales of executive function predict anxiety tied to critical situations such as the prevalence of the corona virus, it seems that greater attention should be allocated to the fostering and development of children's executive functions by teaching such skills at home by families.
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2. Huang Y, Zhao N. Generalized anxiety disorder, depressive symptoms and sleep quality during COVID-19 outbreak in China: a web-based cross-sectional survey. Psychiatry Res. 2020;288:112954.
3. Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, Wang X, Zhou L, Tong Y, et al. Early Transmission Dynamics in Wuhan, China, of Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(13):1199-207.
4. Shirvan ME, Khajavy GH, Nazifi M, Taherian T. Longitudinal examination of adult students’ self‐efficacy and anxiety in the course of general English and their prediction by ideal self‐motivation: Latent growth curve modeling. New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development. 2018;30(4):23-41.
5. Bishop SJ. Neurocognitive mechanisms of anxiety: an integrative account. Trends Cogn Sci. 2007;11(7):307-16.
6. Franklin P, Tsujimoto KC, Lewis ME, Tekok-Kilic A, Frijters JC. Sex differences in self-regulatory executive functions are amplified by trait anxiety: The case of students at risk for academic failure. Pers Individ Dif. 2018;129:131-7.
7. Robson DA, Allen MS, Howard SJ. Self-regulation in childhood as a predictor of future outcomes: A meta-analytic review. Psychol Bull. 2020;146(4):324-54.
8. Eisenberg N, Spinrad TL, Eggum ND. Emotion-related self-regulation and its relation to children's maladjustment. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2010;6:495-525.
9. Snyder HR, Kaiser RH, Warren SL, Heller W. Obsessive-compulsive disorder is associated with broad impairments in executive function: A meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Sci. 2015;3(2):301-30.
10. Eisenberg N, Morris AS. Children's emotion-related regulation. Adv Child Dev Behav. 2002;30:189-229.
11. Sternheim L, Danner U, van Elburg A, Harrison A. Do anxiety, depression, and intolerance of uncertainty contribute to social problem solving in adult women with anorexia nervosa? Brain Behav. 2020;10(6):e01588.
12. Balck F, Zschieschang A, Zimmermann A, Ordemann R. A randomized controlled trial of problem-solving training (PST) for hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) patients: Effects on anxiety, depression, distress, coping and pain. J Psychosoc Oncol. 2019;37(5):541-56.
13. Kant GL, D'Zurilla TJ, Maydeu-Olivares A. Social Problem Solving as a Mediator of Stress-Related Depression and Anxiety in Middle-Aged and Elderly Community Residents. Cognit Ther Res. 1997;21(1):73-96.
14. Farrell AD, Sullivan TN. Structure of the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory Self-Restraint scale and its relation to problem behaviors in adolescence. Psychol Assess. 2000;12(4):394-401.
15. Asendorpf JB, van Aken MA. Resilient, overcontrolled, and undercontrolled personality prototypes in childhood: replicability, predictive power, and the trait-type issue. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1999;77(4):815-32.
16. Hart D, Hofmann V, Edelstein W, Keller M. The relation of childhood personality types to adolescent behavior and development: a longitudinal study of Icelandic children. Dev Psychol. 1997;33(2):195-205.
17. Weinberger DA, Schwartz GE. Distress and restraint as superordinate dimensions of self-reported adjustment: a typological perspective. J Pers. 1990;58(2):381-417.
18. Chen C, Huang J, Shang H. Influence of Self Motivation on Mental Health of Elderly People. Med One. 2016;1(5).
19. Ghiasvand AM, Naderi M, Tafreshi MZ, Ahmadi F, Hosseini M. Relationship between time management skills and anxiety and academic motivation of nursing students in Tehran. Electron Physician. 2017;9(1):3678-84.
20. Kaya H, Kaya N, Palloş A, Küçük L. Assessing time-management skills in terms of age, gender, and anxiety levels: a study on nursing and midwifery students in Turkey. Nurse Educ Pract. 2012;12(5):284-8.
21. Ingram J, Hand CJ, Maciejewski G. Social isolation during COVID-19 lockdown impairs cognitive function. Appl Cogn Psychol. 2021;35(4):935-47.
22. Lavigne-Cerván R, Costa-López B, Juárez-Ruiz de Mier R, Real-Fernández M, Sánchez-Muñoz de León M, Navarro-Soria I. Consequences of COVID-19 Confinement on Anxiety, Sleep and Executive Functions of Children and Adolescents in Spain. Front Psychol. 2021;12:565516.
23. Rosenblum S, Cohen Elimelech O. Gender Differences in State Anxiety Related to Daily Function Among Older Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Questionnaire Study. JMIR Aging. 2021;4(2):e25876.
24. Ji X, Saylor J, Earle FS. Sufficient sleep attenuates COVID-19 pandemic-related executive dysfunction in late adolescents and young adults. Sleep Med. 2021;85:21-4.
25. Alipour A, Ghadami A, Alipour Z, Abdollahzadeh H. Preliminary validation of the Corona Disease Anxiety Scale (CDAS) in the Iranian sample. Quarterly Journal of Health Psychology. 2020;8(32):163-75.
26. Prevatt F, Osborn D, Coffman TP. Utility of the Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale (BDEFS) for career planning in college students with ADHD. Career Planning and Adult Development Journal. 2015:69-79.
27. Soltani Kuhbanani,s. Zarenejad, s. Soltani Kuhbanani, m. Bazari, k. Evaluation of Psychometric Properties of Barclay Children and Adolescents Executive Function Questionnaire. Psychology of exceptional people. 2018. 30(8): 19-45.
28. Cohen J. A power primer. Psychol Bull. 1992;112(1):155-9.
29. Holmes EA, O'Connor RC, Perry VH, Tracey I, Wessely S, Arseneault L, et al. Multidisciplinary research priorities for the COVID-19 pandemic: a call for action for mental health science. Lancet Psychiatry. 2020;7(6):547-60.
30. Larsen L, Helland MS, Holt T. The impact of school closure and social isolation on children in vulnerable families during COVID-19: a focus on children's reactions. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2022;31(8):1-11.
31. Kira IA, Ayna YE, Shuwiekh HAM, Ashby JS. The association of WTELS as a master motivator with higher executive functioning and better mental health. Curr Psychol. 2021:1-12.
32. Kira IA, Alpay EH, Turkeli A, Shuwiekh HA, Ashby JS, Alhuwailah A. The effects of COVID-19 traumatic stress on executive functions: The case of Syrian refugees in Turkey. Journal of Loss and Trauma. 2021;26(7):666-87.
33. Ghosh R, Dubey MJ, Chatterjee S, Dubey S. Impact of COVID -19 on children: special focus on the psychosocial aspect. Minerva Pediatr. 2020;72(3):226-35.
34. Dudovitz RN, Russ S, Berghaus M, Iruka IU, DiBari J, Foney DM, et al. COVID-19 and Children's Well-Being: A Rapid Research Agenda. Matern Child Health J. 2021;25(11):1655-69.
35. Appelhans BM, Thomas AS, Roisman GI, Booth-LaForce C, Bleil ME. Preexisting Executive Function Deficits and Change in Health Behaviors During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int J Behav Med. 2021;28(6):813-9.
36. Lemery-Chalfant K, Doelger L, Goldsmith HH. Genetic Relations Between Effortful and Attentional Control and Symptoms of Psychopathology in Middle Childhood. Infant Child Dev. 2008;17(4):365-85.
37. Eisenberg N, Cumberland A, Spinrad TL. Parental Socialization of Emotion. Psychological inquiry. 1998;9(4):241-73.
38. Li-Grining CP. Effortful control among low-income preschoolers in three cities: Stability, change, and individual differences. Dev Psychol. 2007;43(1):208-21.
39. Rodriguez ML, Ayduk O, Aber JL, Mischel W, Sethi A, Shoda Y. A contextual approach to the development of self‐regulatory competencies: The role of maternal unresponsivity and toddlers’ negative affect in stressful situations. Social Development. 2005;14(1):136-57.
40. Spinrad TL, Eisenberg N, Gaertner B, Popp T, Smith CL, Kupfer A, et al. Relations of maternal socialization and toddlers' effortful control to children's adjustment and social competence. Dev Psychol. 2007;43(5):1170-86.
41. Khan MJ, Younas T, Ashraf S. Problem solving styles as predictor of life satisfaction among university students. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research. 2016:209-22.
42. Ahvan YR, Zainalipour H, Jamri M, Mahmoodi F. The correlation between Gardner's multiple intelligences and the problem-solving styles and their role in the academic performance achievement of high school students. European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences. 2016;5(1):32.
43. Blagov PS, Singer JA. Four dimensions of self-defining memories (specificity, meaning, content, and affect) and their relationships to self-restraint, distress, and repressive defensiveness. J Pers. 2004;72(3):481-511.
44. K BO, Smith J, Lubans DR, Ng JY, Lonsdale C. Self-determined motivation and physical activity in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Prev Med. 2014;67:270-9.
2. Huang Y, Zhao N. Generalized anxiety disorder, depressive symptoms and sleep quality during COVID-19 outbreak in China: a web-based cross-sectional survey. Psychiatry Res. 2020;288:112954.
3. Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, Wang X, Zhou L, Tong Y, et al. Early Transmission Dynamics in Wuhan, China, of Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(13):1199-207.
4. Shirvan ME, Khajavy GH, Nazifi M, Taherian T. Longitudinal examination of adult students’ self‐efficacy and anxiety in the course of general English and their prediction by ideal self‐motivation: Latent growth curve modeling. New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development. 2018;30(4):23-41.
5. Bishop SJ. Neurocognitive mechanisms of anxiety: an integrative account. Trends Cogn Sci. 2007;11(7):307-16.
6. Franklin P, Tsujimoto KC, Lewis ME, Tekok-Kilic A, Frijters JC. Sex differences in self-regulatory executive functions are amplified by trait anxiety: The case of students at risk for academic failure. Pers Individ Dif. 2018;129:131-7.
7. Robson DA, Allen MS, Howard SJ. Self-regulation in childhood as a predictor of future outcomes: A meta-analytic review. Psychol Bull. 2020;146(4):324-54.
8. Eisenberg N, Spinrad TL, Eggum ND. Emotion-related self-regulation and its relation to children's maladjustment. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2010;6:495-525.
9. Snyder HR, Kaiser RH, Warren SL, Heller W. Obsessive-compulsive disorder is associated with broad impairments in executive function: A meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Sci. 2015;3(2):301-30.
10. Eisenberg N, Morris AS. Children's emotion-related regulation. Adv Child Dev Behav. 2002;30:189-229.
11. Sternheim L, Danner U, van Elburg A, Harrison A. Do anxiety, depression, and intolerance of uncertainty contribute to social problem solving in adult women with anorexia nervosa? Brain Behav. 2020;10(6):e01588.
12. Balck F, Zschieschang A, Zimmermann A, Ordemann R. A randomized controlled trial of problem-solving training (PST) for hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) patients: Effects on anxiety, depression, distress, coping and pain. J Psychosoc Oncol. 2019;37(5):541-56.
13. Kant GL, D'Zurilla TJ, Maydeu-Olivares A. Social Problem Solving as a Mediator of Stress-Related Depression and Anxiety in Middle-Aged and Elderly Community Residents. Cognit Ther Res. 1997;21(1):73-96.
14. Farrell AD, Sullivan TN. Structure of the Weinberger Adjustment Inventory Self-Restraint scale and its relation to problem behaviors in adolescence. Psychol Assess. 2000;12(4):394-401.
15. Asendorpf JB, van Aken MA. Resilient, overcontrolled, and undercontrolled personality prototypes in childhood: replicability, predictive power, and the trait-type issue. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1999;77(4):815-32.
16. Hart D, Hofmann V, Edelstein W, Keller M. The relation of childhood personality types to adolescent behavior and development: a longitudinal study of Icelandic children. Dev Psychol. 1997;33(2):195-205.
17. Weinberger DA, Schwartz GE. Distress and restraint as superordinate dimensions of self-reported adjustment: a typological perspective. J Pers. 1990;58(2):381-417.
18. Chen C, Huang J, Shang H. Influence of Self Motivation on Mental Health of Elderly People. Med One. 2016;1(5).
19. Ghiasvand AM, Naderi M, Tafreshi MZ, Ahmadi F, Hosseini M. Relationship between time management skills and anxiety and academic motivation of nursing students in Tehran. Electron Physician. 2017;9(1):3678-84.
20. Kaya H, Kaya N, Palloş A, Küçük L. Assessing time-management skills in terms of age, gender, and anxiety levels: a study on nursing and midwifery students in Turkey. Nurse Educ Pract. 2012;12(5):284-8.
21. Ingram J, Hand CJ, Maciejewski G. Social isolation during COVID-19 lockdown impairs cognitive function. Appl Cogn Psychol. 2021;35(4):935-47.
22. Lavigne-Cerván R, Costa-López B, Juárez-Ruiz de Mier R, Real-Fernández M, Sánchez-Muñoz de León M, Navarro-Soria I. Consequences of COVID-19 Confinement on Anxiety, Sleep and Executive Functions of Children and Adolescents in Spain. Front Psychol. 2021;12:565516.
23. Rosenblum S, Cohen Elimelech O. Gender Differences in State Anxiety Related to Daily Function Among Older Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Questionnaire Study. JMIR Aging. 2021;4(2):e25876.
24. Ji X, Saylor J, Earle FS. Sufficient sleep attenuates COVID-19 pandemic-related executive dysfunction in late adolescents and young adults. Sleep Med. 2021;85:21-4.
25. Alipour A, Ghadami A, Alipour Z, Abdollahzadeh H. Preliminary validation of the Corona Disease Anxiety Scale (CDAS) in the Iranian sample. Quarterly Journal of Health Psychology. 2020;8(32):163-75.
26. Prevatt F, Osborn D, Coffman TP. Utility of the Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale (BDEFS) for career planning in college students with ADHD. Career Planning and Adult Development Journal. 2015:69-79.
27. Soltani Kuhbanani,s. Zarenejad, s. Soltani Kuhbanani, m. Bazari, k. Evaluation of Psychometric Properties of Barclay Children and Adolescents Executive Function Questionnaire. Psychology of exceptional people. 2018. 30(8): 19-45.
28. Cohen J. A power primer. Psychol Bull. 1992;112(1):155-9.
29. Holmes EA, O'Connor RC, Perry VH, Tracey I, Wessely S, Arseneault L, et al. Multidisciplinary research priorities for the COVID-19 pandemic: a call for action for mental health science. Lancet Psychiatry. 2020;7(6):547-60.
30. Larsen L, Helland MS, Holt T. The impact of school closure and social isolation on children in vulnerable families during COVID-19: a focus on children's reactions. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2022;31(8):1-11.
31. Kira IA, Ayna YE, Shuwiekh HAM, Ashby JS. The association of WTELS as a master motivator with higher executive functioning and better mental health. Curr Psychol. 2021:1-12.
32. Kira IA, Alpay EH, Turkeli A, Shuwiekh HA, Ashby JS, Alhuwailah A. The effects of COVID-19 traumatic stress on executive functions: The case of Syrian refugees in Turkey. Journal of Loss and Trauma. 2021;26(7):666-87.
33. Ghosh R, Dubey MJ, Chatterjee S, Dubey S. Impact of COVID -19 on children: special focus on the psychosocial aspect. Minerva Pediatr. 2020;72(3):226-35.
34. Dudovitz RN, Russ S, Berghaus M, Iruka IU, DiBari J, Foney DM, et al. COVID-19 and Children's Well-Being: A Rapid Research Agenda. Matern Child Health J. 2021;25(11):1655-69.
35. Appelhans BM, Thomas AS, Roisman GI, Booth-LaForce C, Bleil ME. Preexisting Executive Function Deficits and Change in Health Behaviors During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int J Behav Med. 2021;28(6):813-9.
36. Lemery-Chalfant K, Doelger L, Goldsmith HH. Genetic Relations Between Effortful and Attentional Control and Symptoms of Psychopathology in Middle Childhood. Infant Child Dev. 2008;17(4):365-85.
37. Eisenberg N, Cumberland A, Spinrad TL. Parental Socialization of Emotion. Psychological inquiry. 1998;9(4):241-73.
38. Li-Grining CP. Effortful control among low-income preschoolers in three cities: Stability, change, and individual differences. Dev Psychol. 2007;43(1):208-21.
39. Rodriguez ML, Ayduk O, Aber JL, Mischel W, Sethi A, Shoda Y. A contextual approach to the development of self‐regulatory competencies: The role of maternal unresponsivity and toddlers’ negative affect in stressful situations. Social Development. 2005;14(1):136-57.
40. Spinrad TL, Eisenberg N, Gaertner B, Popp T, Smith CL, Kupfer A, et al. Relations of maternal socialization and toddlers' effortful control to children's adjustment and social competence. Dev Psychol. 2007;43(5):1170-86.
41. Khan MJ, Younas T, Ashraf S. Problem solving styles as predictor of life satisfaction among university students. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research. 2016:209-22.
42. Ahvan YR, Zainalipour H, Jamri M, Mahmoodi F. The correlation between Gardner's multiple intelligences and the problem-solving styles and their role in the academic performance achievement of high school students. European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences. 2016;5(1):32.
43. Blagov PS, Singer JA. Four dimensions of self-defining memories (specificity, meaning, content, and affect) and their relationships to self-restraint, distress, and repressive defensiveness. J Pers. 2004;72(3):481-511.
44. K BO, Smith J, Lubans DR, Ng JY, Lonsdale C. Self-determined motivation and physical activity in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Prev Med. 2014;67:270-9.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 18 No 1 (2023) | |
| Section | Original Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/ijps.v18i1.11413 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Anxiety Children COVID-19 Self-Management Self-Restraint | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Soltani Kouhbanani S, Zarenezhad S, Arabi SM. COVID-19 Anxiety in Children and Its Relationship with Self-Related Skills of Executive Functions. Iran J Psychiatry. 2022;18(1):55-64.
