Biological and Neurobiological Mechanisms of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
,
Abstract
Objective: Changes in cortical excitability and neuroplasticity are important parts of the neuropathology and pathophysiology of many neuropsychiatric disorders. Noninvasive brain stimulation is a high-potential therapeutic approach to modify cortical activities. One of the most popular of these techniques is transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). However, the biological and neurobiological effects of tDCS should be better clarified to enable its optimal use in clinical and therapeutic practices. In this paper, we summarize the neurophysiological and physiological effects and mechanisms of action of tDCS.
Method: An update literature review was conducted on the biological responses of tDCS reported in human, in vitro and in vivo studies, with a focus on cellular cascades related to neuroplasticity, neuronal reorganization and inflammation caused by applied direct current electric fields.
Results: The regulatory mechanisms of tDCS on motor and cognitive functions can be described by membrane polarization and transmembrane potential with a main subsequent effect on neurotransmission systems, neuronal excitability, synaptic microenvironment and neuronal connectivity to neuronal reorganization and neurogenesis in association with synaptic plasticity as well as inflammatory processes. In general, the effects of tDCS may include acute- or after-effects and direct or indirect effects and can be examined at different levels including the neurochemical, the neuroelectrical and the brain oscillatory levels.
Conclusion: A deep understanding of the molecular and cellular responses to tDCS is very important and crucial. This therapeutic technique can be utilized in various clinical trials with a perspective of being routinely suggested and presented to patients with different pathological conditions influencing the central or peripheral nervous system.
1. Gao Y, Cavuoto L, Schwaitzberg S, Norfleet JE, Intes X, De S. The Effects of Transcranial Electrical Stimulation on Human Motor Functions: A Comprehensive Review of Functional Neuroimaging Studies. Front Neurosci. 2020;14:744.
2. Khaleghi A, Zarafshan H, Vand SR, Mohammadi MR. Effects of Non-invasive Neurostimulation on Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2020;18(4):527-52.
3. Khaleghi A, Pirzad Jahromi G, Zarafshan H, Mostafavi SA, Mohammadi MR. Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation of prefrontal cortex on risk-taking behavior. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2020;74(9):455-65.
4. Mostafavi SA, Khaleghi A, Mohammadi MR. Noninvasive brain stimulation in alcohol craving: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2020;101:109938.
5. Mostafavi SA, Khaleghi A, Mohammadi MR, Akhondzadeh S. Is transcranial direct current stimulation an effective modality in reducing food craving? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr Neurosci. 2020;23(1):55-67.
6. Lefaucheur JP, Antal A, Ayache SS, Benninger DH, Brunelin J, Cogiamanian F, et al. Evidence-based guidelines on the therapeutic use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Clin Neurophysiol. 2017;128(1):56-92.
7. Brunoni AR, Nitsche MA, Bolognini N, Bikson M, Wagner T, Merabet L, et al. Clinical research with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): challenges and future directions. Brain Stimul. 2012;5(3):175-95.
8. Jackson MP, Rahman A, Lafon B, Kronberg G, Ling D, Parra LC, et al. Animal models of transcranial direct current stimulation: Methods and mechanisms. Clin Neurophysiol. 2016;127(11):3425-54.
9. Fischer DB, Fried PJ, Ruffini G, Ripolles O, Salvador R, Banus J, et al. Multifocal tDCS targeting the resting state motor network increases cortical excitability beyond traditional tDCS targeting unilateral motor cortex. Neuroimage. 2017;157:34-44.
10. Medeiros LF, de Souza IC, Vidor LP, de Souza A, Deitos A, Volz MS, et al. Neurobiological effects of transcranial direct current stimulation: a review. Front Psychiatry. 2012;3:110.
11. Bikson M, Inoue M, Akiyama H, Deans JK, Fox JE, Miyakawa H, et al. Effects of uniform extracellular DC electric fields on excitability in rat hippocampal slices in vitro. J Physiol. 2004;557(Pt 1):175-90.
12. Rahman A, Reato D, Arlotti M, Gasca F, Datta A, Parra LC, et al. Cellular effects of acute direct current stimulation: somatic and synaptic terminal effects. J Physiol. 2013;591(10):2563-78.
13. Kabakov AY, Muller PA, Pascual-Leone A, Jensen FE, Rotenberg A. Contribution of axonal orientation to pathway-dependent modulation of excitatory transmission by direct current stimulation in isolated rat hippocampus. J Neurophysiol. 2012;107(7):1881-9.
14. Bikson M, Rahman A, Datta A. Computational models of transcranial direct current stimulation. Clin EEG Neurosci. 2012;43(3):176-83.
15. Nitsche MA, Liebetanz D, Antal A, Lang N, Tergau F, Paulus W. Modulation of cortical excitability by weak direct current stimulation--technical, safety and functional aspects. Suppl Clin Neurophysiol. 2003;56:255-76.
16. Nitsche MA, Paulus W. Excitability changes induced in the human motor cortex by weak transcranial direct current stimulation. J Physiol. 2000;527 Pt 3(Pt 3):633-9.
17. Santarnecchi E, Feurra M, Barneschi F, Acampa M, Bianco G, Cioncoloni D, et al. Time Course of Corticospinal Excitability and Autonomic Function Interplay during and Following Monopolar tDCS. Front Psychiatry. 2014;5:86.
18. Matsunaga K, Nitsche MA, Tsuji S, Rothwell JC. Effect of transcranial DC sensorimotor cortex stimulation on somatosensory evoked potentials in humans. Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;115(2):456-60.
19. Antal A, Kincses TZ, Nitsche MA, Bartfai O, Paulus W. Excitability changes induced in the human primary visual cortex by transcranial direct current stimulation: direct electrophysiological evidence. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2004;45(2):702-7.
20. Nitsche MA, Fricke K, Henschke U, Schlitterlau A, Liebetanz D, Lang N, et al. Pharmacological modulation of cortical excitability shifts induced by transcranial direct current stimulation in humans. J Physiol. 2003;553(Pt 1):293-301.
21. Stagg CJ, Best JG, Stephenson MC, O'Shea J, Wylezinska M, Kincses ZT, et al. Polarity-sensitive modulation of cortical neurotransmitters by transcranial stimulation. J Neurosci. 2009;29(16):5202-6.
22. McCaig CD, Rajnicek AM, Song B, Zhao M. Controlling cell behavior electrically: current views and future potential. Physiol Rev. 2005;85(3):943-78.
23. Pelletier SJ, Cicchetti F. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of action of transcranial direct current stimulation: evidence from in vitro and in vivo models. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014;18(2).
24. Fritsch B, Reis J, Martinowich K, Schambra HM, Ji Y, Cohen LG, et al. Direct current stimulation promotes BDNF-dependent synaptic plasticity: potential implications for motor learning. Neuron. 2010;66(2):198-204.
25. Stagg CJ, O'Shea J, Kincses ZT, Woolrich M, Matthews PM, Johansen-Berg H. Modulation of movement-associated cortical activation by transcranial direct current stimulation. Eur J Neurosci. 2009;30(7):1412-23.
26. Nitsche MA, Kuo MF, Karrasch R, Wächter B, Liebetanz D, Paulus W. Serotonin affects transcranial direct current-induced neuroplasticity in humans. Biol Psychiatry. 2009;66(5):503-8.
27. Nitsche MA, Lampe C, Antal A, Liebetanz D, Lang N, Tergau F, et al. Dopaminergic modulation of long-lasting direct current-induced cortical excitability changes in the human motor cortex. Eur J Neurosci. 2006;23(6):1651-7.
28. Lang N, Siebner HR, Ward NS, Lee L, Nitsche MA, Paulus W, et al. How does transcranial DC stimulation of the primary motor cortex alter regional neuronal activity in the human brain? Eur J Neurosci. 2005;22(2):495-504.
29. Morya E, Monte-Silva K, Bikson M, Esmaeilpour Z, Biazoli CE, Jr., Fonseca A, et al. Beyond the target area: an integrative view of tDCS-induced motor cortex modulation in patients and athletes. J Neuroeng Rehabil. 2019;16(1):141.
30. Ardolino G, Bossi B, Barbieri S, Priori A. Non-synaptic mechanisms underlie the after-effects of cathodal transcutaneous direct current stimulation of the human brain. J Physiol. 2005;568(Pt 2):653-63.
31. Ruohonen J, Karhu J. tDCS possibly stimulates glial cells. Clin Neurophysiol. 2012;123(10):2006-9.
32. Heneka MT, Carson MJ, El Khoury J, Landreth GE, Brosseron F, Feinstein DL, et al. Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease. Lancet Neurol. 2015;14(4):388-405.
33. Toschi F, Lugli F, Biscarini F, Zerbetto F. Effects of electric field stress on a beta-amyloid peptide. J Phys Chem B. 2009;113(1):369-76.
34. Gangemi A, Colombo B, Fabio RA. Effects of short- and long-term neurostimulation (tDCS) on Alzheimer's disease patients: two randomized studies. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2021;33(2):383-90.
35. Hurley R, Machado L. Using tDCS priming to improve brain function: Can metaplasticity provide the key to boosting outcomes? Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2017;83:155-9.
36. Yu TH, Wu YJ, Chien ME, Hsu KS. Transcranial direct current stimulation induces hippocampal metaplasticity mediated by brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Neuropharmacology. 2019;144:358-67.
37. Carvalho S, Boggio PS, Gonçalves Ó F, Vigário AR, Faria M, Silva S, et al. Transcranial direct current stimulation based metaplasticity protocols in working memory. Brain Stimul. 2015;8(2):289-94.
38. Lefaucheur JP, Wendling F. Mechanisms of action of tDCS: A brief and practical overview. Neurophysiol Clin. 2019;49(4):269-75.
39. Simonetti D, Zollo L, Milighetti S, Miccinilli S, Bravi M, Ranieri F, et al. Literature Review on the Effects of tDCS Coupled with Robotic Therapy in Post Stroke Upper Limb Rehabilitation. Front Hum Neurosci. 2017;11:268.
40. Fujiyama H, Hinder MR, Barzideh A, Van de Vijver C, Badache AC, Manrique CM, et al. Preconditioning tDCS facilitates subsequent tDCS effect on skill acquisition in older adults. Neurobiol Aging. 2017;51:31-42.
41. Christova M, Rafolt D, Gallasch E. Cumulative effects of anodal and priming cathodal tDCS on pegboard test performance and motor cortical excitability. Behav Brain Res. 2015;287:27-33.
42. Bouchard A, Dickler M, Renauld E, Lenglos C, Ferland F, Leblond J, et al. Abstract# 149: Importance of Brain Volume on tDCS-induced Effects on GABA Levels. Brain Stimulation: Basic, Translational, and Clinical Research in Neuromodulation. 2019;12(2):e51.
43. Bulubas L, Padberg F, Bueno PV, Duran F, Busatto G, Amaro E, Jr., et al. Antidepressant effects of tDCS are associated with prefrontal gray matter volumes at baseline: Evidence from the ELECT-TDCS trial. Brain Stimul. 2019;12(5):1197-204.
44. Paulus W, Rothwell JC. Membrane resistance and shunting inhibition: where biophysics meets state-dependent human neurophysiology. J Physiol. 2016;594(10):2719-28.
45. Brunoni AR, Ferrucci R, Bortolomasi M, Scelzo E, Boggio PS, Fregni F, et al. Interactions between transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and pharmacological interventions in the Major Depressive Episode: findings from a naturalistic study. Eur Psychiatry. 2013;28(6):356-61.
46. Plewnia C, Zwissler B, Längst I, Maurer B, Giel K, Krüger R. Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on executive functions: influence of COMT Val/Met polymorphism. Cortex. 2013;49(7):1801-7.
47. Shekhawat GS, Sundram F, Bikson M, Truong D, De Ridder D, Stinear CM, et al. Intensity, Duration, and Location of High-Definition Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation for Tinnitus Relief. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2016;30(4):349-59.
48. Batsikadze G, Moliadze V, Paulus W, Kuo MF, Nitsche MA. Partially non-linear stimulation intensity-dependent effects of direct current stimulation on motor cortex excitability in humans. J Physiol. 2013;591(7):1987-2000.
49. Lefaucheur JP. Neurophysiology of cortical stimulation. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2012;107:57-85.
50. Sadleir RJ, Vannorsdall TD, Schretlen DJ, Gordon B. Target optimization in transcranial direct current stimulation. Front Psychiatry. 2012;3:90.
51. Saturnino GB, Antunes A, Thielscher A. On the importance of electrode parameters for shaping electric field patterns generated by tDCS. Neuroimage. 2015;120:25-35.
2. Khaleghi A, Zarafshan H, Vand SR, Mohammadi MR. Effects of Non-invasive Neurostimulation on Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2020;18(4):527-52.
3. Khaleghi A, Pirzad Jahromi G, Zarafshan H, Mostafavi SA, Mohammadi MR. Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation of prefrontal cortex on risk-taking behavior. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2020;74(9):455-65.
4. Mostafavi SA, Khaleghi A, Mohammadi MR. Noninvasive brain stimulation in alcohol craving: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2020;101:109938.
5. Mostafavi SA, Khaleghi A, Mohammadi MR, Akhondzadeh S. Is transcranial direct current stimulation an effective modality in reducing food craving? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr Neurosci. 2020;23(1):55-67.
6. Lefaucheur JP, Antal A, Ayache SS, Benninger DH, Brunelin J, Cogiamanian F, et al. Evidence-based guidelines on the therapeutic use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Clin Neurophysiol. 2017;128(1):56-92.
7. Brunoni AR, Nitsche MA, Bolognini N, Bikson M, Wagner T, Merabet L, et al. Clinical research with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): challenges and future directions. Brain Stimul. 2012;5(3):175-95.
8. Jackson MP, Rahman A, Lafon B, Kronberg G, Ling D, Parra LC, et al. Animal models of transcranial direct current stimulation: Methods and mechanisms. Clin Neurophysiol. 2016;127(11):3425-54.
9. Fischer DB, Fried PJ, Ruffini G, Ripolles O, Salvador R, Banus J, et al. Multifocal tDCS targeting the resting state motor network increases cortical excitability beyond traditional tDCS targeting unilateral motor cortex. Neuroimage. 2017;157:34-44.
10. Medeiros LF, de Souza IC, Vidor LP, de Souza A, Deitos A, Volz MS, et al. Neurobiological effects of transcranial direct current stimulation: a review. Front Psychiatry. 2012;3:110.
11. Bikson M, Inoue M, Akiyama H, Deans JK, Fox JE, Miyakawa H, et al. Effects of uniform extracellular DC electric fields on excitability in rat hippocampal slices in vitro. J Physiol. 2004;557(Pt 1):175-90.
12. Rahman A, Reato D, Arlotti M, Gasca F, Datta A, Parra LC, et al. Cellular effects of acute direct current stimulation: somatic and synaptic terminal effects. J Physiol. 2013;591(10):2563-78.
13. Kabakov AY, Muller PA, Pascual-Leone A, Jensen FE, Rotenberg A. Contribution of axonal orientation to pathway-dependent modulation of excitatory transmission by direct current stimulation in isolated rat hippocampus. J Neurophysiol. 2012;107(7):1881-9.
14. Bikson M, Rahman A, Datta A. Computational models of transcranial direct current stimulation. Clin EEG Neurosci. 2012;43(3):176-83.
15. Nitsche MA, Liebetanz D, Antal A, Lang N, Tergau F, Paulus W. Modulation of cortical excitability by weak direct current stimulation--technical, safety and functional aspects. Suppl Clin Neurophysiol. 2003;56:255-76.
16. Nitsche MA, Paulus W. Excitability changes induced in the human motor cortex by weak transcranial direct current stimulation. J Physiol. 2000;527 Pt 3(Pt 3):633-9.
17. Santarnecchi E, Feurra M, Barneschi F, Acampa M, Bianco G, Cioncoloni D, et al. Time Course of Corticospinal Excitability and Autonomic Function Interplay during and Following Monopolar tDCS. Front Psychiatry. 2014;5:86.
18. Matsunaga K, Nitsche MA, Tsuji S, Rothwell JC. Effect of transcranial DC sensorimotor cortex stimulation on somatosensory evoked potentials in humans. Clin Neurophysiol. 2004;115(2):456-60.
19. Antal A, Kincses TZ, Nitsche MA, Bartfai O, Paulus W. Excitability changes induced in the human primary visual cortex by transcranial direct current stimulation: direct electrophysiological evidence. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2004;45(2):702-7.
20. Nitsche MA, Fricke K, Henschke U, Schlitterlau A, Liebetanz D, Lang N, et al. Pharmacological modulation of cortical excitability shifts induced by transcranial direct current stimulation in humans. J Physiol. 2003;553(Pt 1):293-301.
21. Stagg CJ, Best JG, Stephenson MC, O'Shea J, Wylezinska M, Kincses ZT, et al. Polarity-sensitive modulation of cortical neurotransmitters by transcranial stimulation. J Neurosci. 2009;29(16):5202-6.
22. McCaig CD, Rajnicek AM, Song B, Zhao M. Controlling cell behavior electrically: current views and future potential. Physiol Rev. 2005;85(3):943-78.
23. Pelletier SJ, Cicchetti F. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of action of transcranial direct current stimulation: evidence from in vitro and in vivo models. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014;18(2).
24. Fritsch B, Reis J, Martinowich K, Schambra HM, Ji Y, Cohen LG, et al. Direct current stimulation promotes BDNF-dependent synaptic plasticity: potential implications for motor learning. Neuron. 2010;66(2):198-204.
25. Stagg CJ, O'Shea J, Kincses ZT, Woolrich M, Matthews PM, Johansen-Berg H. Modulation of movement-associated cortical activation by transcranial direct current stimulation. Eur J Neurosci. 2009;30(7):1412-23.
26. Nitsche MA, Kuo MF, Karrasch R, Wächter B, Liebetanz D, Paulus W. Serotonin affects transcranial direct current-induced neuroplasticity in humans. Biol Psychiatry. 2009;66(5):503-8.
27. Nitsche MA, Lampe C, Antal A, Liebetanz D, Lang N, Tergau F, et al. Dopaminergic modulation of long-lasting direct current-induced cortical excitability changes in the human motor cortex. Eur J Neurosci. 2006;23(6):1651-7.
28. Lang N, Siebner HR, Ward NS, Lee L, Nitsche MA, Paulus W, et al. How does transcranial DC stimulation of the primary motor cortex alter regional neuronal activity in the human brain? Eur J Neurosci. 2005;22(2):495-504.
29. Morya E, Monte-Silva K, Bikson M, Esmaeilpour Z, Biazoli CE, Jr., Fonseca A, et al. Beyond the target area: an integrative view of tDCS-induced motor cortex modulation in patients and athletes. J Neuroeng Rehabil. 2019;16(1):141.
30. Ardolino G, Bossi B, Barbieri S, Priori A. Non-synaptic mechanisms underlie the after-effects of cathodal transcutaneous direct current stimulation of the human brain. J Physiol. 2005;568(Pt 2):653-63.
31. Ruohonen J, Karhu J. tDCS possibly stimulates glial cells. Clin Neurophysiol. 2012;123(10):2006-9.
32. Heneka MT, Carson MJ, El Khoury J, Landreth GE, Brosseron F, Feinstein DL, et al. Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease. Lancet Neurol. 2015;14(4):388-405.
33. Toschi F, Lugli F, Biscarini F, Zerbetto F. Effects of electric field stress on a beta-amyloid peptide. J Phys Chem B. 2009;113(1):369-76.
34. Gangemi A, Colombo B, Fabio RA. Effects of short- and long-term neurostimulation (tDCS) on Alzheimer's disease patients: two randomized studies. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2021;33(2):383-90.
35. Hurley R, Machado L. Using tDCS priming to improve brain function: Can metaplasticity provide the key to boosting outcomes? Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2017;83:155-9.
36. Yu TH, Wu YJ, Chien ME, Hsu KS. Transcranial direct current stimulation induces hippocampal metaplasticity mediated by brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Neuropharmacology. 2019;144:358-67.
37. Carvalho S, Boggio PS, Gonçalves Ó F, Vigário AR, Faria M, Silva S, et al. Transcranial direct current stimulation based metaplasticity protocols in working memory. Brain Stimul. 2015;8(2):289-94.
38. Lefaucheur JP, Wendling F. Mechanisms of action of tDCS: A brief and practical overview. Neurophysiol Clin. 2019;49(4):269-75.
39. Simonetti D, Zollo L, Milighetti S, Miccinilli S, Bravi M, Ranieri F, et al. Literature Review on the Effects of tDCS Coupled with Robotic Therapy in Post Stroke Upper Limb Rehabilitation. Front Hum Neurosci. 2017;11:268.
40. Fujiyama H, Hinder MR, Barzideh A, Van de Vijver C, Badache AC, Manrique CM, et al. Preconditioning tDCS facilitates subsequent tDCS effect on skill acquisition in older adults. Neurobiol Aging. 2017;51:31-42.
41. Christova M, Rafolt D, Gallasch E. Cumulative effects of anodal and priming cathodal tDCS on pegboard test performance and motor cortical excitability. Behav Brain Res. 2015;287:27-33.
42. Bouchard A, Dickler M, Renauld E, Lenglos C, Ferland F, Leblond J, et al. Abstract# 149: Importance of Brain Volume on tDCS-induced Effects on GABA Levels. Brain Stimulation: Basic, Translational, and Clinical Research in Neuromodulation. 2019;12(2):e51.
43. Bulubas L, Padberg F, Bueno PV, Duran F, Busatto G, Amaro E, Jr., et al. Antidepressant effects of tDCS are associated with prefrontal gray matter volumes at baseline: Evidence from the ELECT-TDCS trial. Brain Stimul. 2019;12(5):1197-204.
44. Paulus W, Rothwell JC. Membrane resistance and shunting inhibition: where biophysics meets state-dependent human neurophysiology. J Physiol. 2016;594(10):2719-28.
45. Brunoni AR, Ferrucci R, Bortolomasi M, Scelzo E, Boggio PS, Fregni F, et al. Interactions between transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and pharmacological interventions in the Major Depressive Episode: findings from a naturalistic study. Eur Psychiatry. 2013;28(6):356-61.
46. Plewnia C, Zwissler B, Längst I, Maurer B, Giel K, Krüger R. Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on executive functions: influence of COMT Val/Met polymorphism. Cortex. 2013;49(7):1801-7.
47. Shekhawat GS, Sundram F, Bikson M, Truong D, De Ridder D, Stinear CM, et al. Intensity, Duration, and Location of High-Definition Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation for Tinnitus Relief. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2016;30(4):349-59.
48. Batsikadze G, Moliadze V, Paulus W, Kuo MF, Nitsche MA. Partially non-linear stimulation intensity-dependent effects of direct current stimulation on motor cortex excitability in humans. J Physiol. 2013;591(7):1987-2000.
49. Lefaucheur JP. Neurophysiology of cortical stimulation. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2012;107:57-85.
50. Sadleir RJ, Vannorsdall TD, Schretlen DJ, Gordon B. Target optimization in transcranial direct current stimulation. Front Psychiatry. 2012;3:90.
51. Saturnino GB, Antunes A, Thielscher A. On the importance of electrode parameters for shaping electric field patterns generated by tDCS. Neuroimage. 2015;120:25-35.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 17 No 3 (2022) | |
| Section | Short Communication(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/ijps.v17i3.9735 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Neuromodulation Neurobiology Neuropsychiatry Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Dadgar H, Majidi H, Aghaei S. Biological and Neurobiological Mechanisms of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation. Iran J Psychiatry. 2022;17(3):350-355.
