An Increased Need to Identify Protective Factors for Sexual Assault

Abstract

Sexual assault is a pervasive and serious problem characterized by forced sexual contact between individuals by means of intimidation, threats, or fear (1). Several studies have indicated that 17–25% of women and 1–3% of men have experienced sexual assault in their lifetime in the United States (2). The Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW) reported that an estimated 7.9 million (16.6%) adults aged 16 years and over had experienced sexual assault since the age of 16 years for the year ending March 2022 (3). A systematic review estimated the prevalence of sexual harassment in low and middle income countries and reported prevalence rates ranging from 0.6% to 26.1% in studies that used the direct query method, and from 14.5% to 98.8% among studies that used questions based on behavioral acts (4). Different mental problems such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, depression, substance use, suicide ideation or attempt, or psychosomatic complaints have been observed among victims of sexual assault (2, 5). A systematic review and meta-analysis reported alcohol consumption as the most common risk factor of sexual violence perpetrated by men against women at higher education institution. Also, hostility toward women, delinquency, fraternity membership, history of sexual violence perpetration, rape myth acceptance, age at first sex, and peer approval of sexual violence were other risk factors (6). Ullman and Najdowski (2011) considered three levels of factors for sexual assault, including macro-level structures, meso-level situations, and micro-level individual factors. However, several studies reported the protective factors to reduce women’s risk of being sexually assaulted. For example, bystander intervention, social support and social integration, avoiding risk behaviors, sexual assertiveness, resistance and self-defense, and coping strategies can protect women from being victimized (7).