On the Effects of Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation Techniques on Developmental Dyslexia: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials
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Abstract
Objective: Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) can safely influence brain activity, enhancing cognitive functions and offering potential benefits for learning disabilities like dyslexia. This paper aims to fill the current gap in comprehensive reviews on NIBS studies specifically targeting dyslexic individuals.
Method: we conducted a systematic review across several databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, and CENTRAL Cochrane. The initial search strategy was designed to be as comprehensive as possible to capture all pertinent studies. We did not impose any language restrictions or time constraints during our search. The strategy was initially created using MEDLINE MeSH terms and subsequently adapted for the other databases. Our search included the keywords “dyslexia” in combination with “NIBS”, “transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)”, “transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)”, and other NIBS types like repetitive TMS and transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS).
Results: 17 randomized controlled trial (RCT) studies were found to meet the eligibility criteria and are included in this review. Findings showed that repeated tDCS sessions, when paired with reading interventions, can effectively enhance reading abilities. Studies indicate that anodal tDCS applied to the left temporo‐parietal cortex (TPC) and cathodal tDCS to the right TPC, along with phonology-based reading training, have led to improvements in various reading metrics, including the reading of pseudo-words and low-frequency words. Notably, traditional reading areas appear to respond well to modulation through NIBS, and facilitative protocols can enhance various subprocesses related to reading.
Conclusion: Research indicates that tDCS, when used with reading interventions, enhances specific reading skills in individuals with dyslexia. Additionally, gamma-tACS applied to the left auditory cortex yields short-term improvements in neurophysiological responses to auditory stimuli. However, further randomized controlled trials with long-term follow-ups are necessary to establish the clinical effectiveness of these interventions.
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10. Aro T, Eklund K, Eloranta AK, Närhi V, Korhonen E, Ahonen T. Associations Between Childhood Learning Disabilities and Adult-Age Mental Health Problems, Lack of Education, and Unemployment. J Learn Disabil. 2019;52(1):71-83.
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12. Devoto F, Carioti D, Danelli L, Berlingeri M. A meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies on developmental dyslexia across European orthographies: the ADOD model. Lang Cogn Neurosci. 2022;37(3):285-314.
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26. Lazzaro G, Costanzo F, Varuzza C, Rossi S, De Matteis ME, Vicari S, et al. Individual differences modulate the effects of tDCS on reading in children and adolescents with dyslexia. Sci Stud Read. 2021;25(6):470-85.
27. Piccoli E, Cerioli M, Castiglioni M, Larini L, Scarpa C, Dell'Osso B. Recent innovations in non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) for the treatment of unipolar and bipolar depression: a narrative review. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2022;34(7-8):715-26.
28. Tabasi M, Mostafavi SA, Oreyzi H, Mohammadi MR, Khaleghi A. The Effectiveness of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) and Omega-3 on Food Craving, Executive Functions, Weight, and Depressive Symptoms in Patients with Depression and Overweight: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Iran J Psychiatry. 2024;19(2):158-73.
29. Mostafavi SA, Khaleghi A, Mohammadi MR, Akhondzadeh S. Is transcranial direct current stimulation an effective modality in reducing food craving? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr Neurosci. 2020;23(1):55-67.
30. Mostafavi SA, Khaleghi A, Mohammadi MR. Noninvasive brain stimulation in alcohol craving: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2020;101:109938.
31. Khaleghi A, Pirzad Jahromi G, Zarafshan H, Mostafavi SA, Mohammadi MR. Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation of prefrontal cortex on risk-taking behavior. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2020;74(9):455-65.
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33. Khaleghi A, Zarafshan H, Vand SR, Mohammadi MR. Effects of Non-invasive Neurostimulation on Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2020;18(4):527-52.
34. Kidwai J, Sharma S, Peper M, Brumberg J. Investigating NIBS for language rehabilitation in aphasia. Aphasiology. 2023;37(8):1285-314.
35. Siebner HR, Funke K, Aberra AS, Antal A, Bestmann S, Chen R, et al. Transcranial magnetic stimulation of the brain: What is stimulated? - A consensus and critical position paper. Clin Neurophysiol. 2022;140:59-97.
36. Goldsworthy MR, Hordacre B, Rothwell JC, Ridding MC. Effects of rTMS on the brain: is there value in variability? Cortex. 2021;139:43-59.
37. Dadgar H, Majidi H, Aghaei S. Biological and Neurobiological Mechanisms of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation. Iran J Psychiatry. 2022;17(3):350-5.
38. Santander T, Leslie S, Li LJ, Skinner HE, Simonson JM, Sweeney P, et al. Towards optimized methodological parameters for maximizing the behavioral effects of transcranial direct current stimulation. Front Hum Neurosci. 2024;18:1305446.
39. Khaleghi A, Mohammadi MR, Shahi K, Nasrabadi AM. Computational Neuroscience Approach to Psychiatry: A Review on Theory-driven Approaches. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2022;20(1):26-36.
40. Turker S, Hartwigsen G. The use of noninvasive brain stimulation techniques to improve reading difficulties in dyslexia: A systematic review. Hum Brain Mapp. 2022;43(3):1157-73.
41. Cuschieri S. The CONSORT statement. Saudi J Anaesth. 2019;13(Suppl 1):S27-s30.
42. Rufener KS, Zaehle T, Krauel K. Combined multi-session transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) and language skills training improves individual gamma band activity and literacy skills in developmental dyslexia. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2023;64:101317.
43. Mirahadi SS, Nitsche MA, Pahlavanzadeh B, Mohamadi R, Ashayeri H, Abolghasemi J. Reading and phonological awareness improvement accomplished by transcranial direct current stimulation combined with phonological awareness training: A randomized controlled trial. Appl Neuropsychol Child. 2023;12(2):137-49.
44. Fazel S, Rostamoghli Z. The effectiveness of Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on attention and working memory in students with dyslexia. J Learn Disabil. 2023;13(1):17-28.
45. Rahimi V, Mohammadkhani G, Alaghband Rad J, Mousavi SZ, Khalili ME. Modulation of auditory temporal processing, speech in noise perception, auditory-verbal memory, and reading efficiency by anodal tDCS in children with dyslexia. Neuropsychologia. 2022;177:108427.
46. Werchowski M, Stenner T, Splittgerber M, Siniatchkin M, Nees F, Hartwigsen G, et al. No effects of prefrontal multichannel tACS at individual alpha frequency on phonological decisions. Clin Neurophysiol. 2022;142:96-108.
47. Battisti A, Lazzaro G, Costanzo F, Varuzza C, Rossi S, Vicari S, et al. Effects of a short and intensive transcranial direct current stimulation treatment in children and adolescents with developmental dyslexia: A crossover clinical trial. Front Psychol. 2022;13:986242.
48. Lazzaro G, Bertoni S, Menghini D, Costanzo F, Franceschini S, Varuzza C, et al. Beyond Reading Modulation: Temporo-Parietal tDCS Alters Visuo-Spatial Attention and Motion Perception in Dyslexia. Brain Sci. 2021;11(2):263.
49. Cummine J, Villarena M, Onysyk T, Devlin JT. A Study of Null Effects for the Use of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) in Adults With and Without Reading Impairment. Neurobiol Lang (Camb). 2020;1(4):434-51.
50. Marchesotti S, Nicolle J, Merlet I, Arnal LH, Donoghue JP, Giraud AL. Selective enhancement of low-gamma activity by tACS improves phonemic processing and reading accuracy in dyslexia. PLoS Biol. 2020;18(9):e3000833.
51. Costanzo F, Rossi S, Varuzza C, Varvara P, Vicari S, Menghini D. Long-lasting improvement following tDCS treatment combined with a training for reading in children and adolescents with dyslexia. Neuropsychologia. 2019;130:38-43.
52. Rahimi V, Mohamadkhani G, Alaghband-Rad J, Kermani FR, Nikfarjad H, Marofizade S. Modulation of temporal resolution and speech long-latency auditory-evoked potentials by transcranial direct current stimulation in children and adolescents with dyslexia. Exp Brain Res. 2019;237(3):873-82.
53. Rufener KS, Krauel K, Meyer M, Heinze HJ, Zaehle T. Transcranial electrical stimulation improves phoneme processing in developmental dyslexia. Brain Stimul. 2019;12(4):930-7.
54. Costanzo F, Varuzza C, Rossi S, Sdoia S, Varvara P, Oliveri M, et al. Evidence for reading improvement following tDCS treatment in children and adolescents with Dyslexia. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2016;34(2):215-26.
55. Costanzo F, Varuzza C, Rossi S, Sdoia S, Varvara P, Oliveri M, et al. Reading changes in children and adolescents with dyslexia after transcranial direct current stimulation. Neuroreport. 2016;27(5):295-300.
56. Heth I, Lavidor M. Improved reading measures in adults with dyslexia following transcranial direct current stimulation treatment. Neuropsychologia. 2015;70:107-13.
57. Costanzo F, Menghini D, Caltagirone C, Oliveri M, Vicari S. How to improve reading skills in dyslexics: the effect of high frequency rTMS. Neuropsychologia. 2013;51(14):2953-9.
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2. Snowling MJ, Hulme C, Nation K. Defining and understanding dyslexia: past, present and future. Oxf Rev Educ. 2020;46(4):501-13.
3. Wagner RK, Zirps FA, Edwards AA, Wood SG, Joyner RE, Becker BJ, et al. The Prevalence of Dyslexia: A New Approach to Its Estimation. J Learn Disabil. 2020;53(5):354-65.
4. Adlof SM. Promoting Reading Achievement in Children With Developmental Language Disorders: What Can We Learn From Research on Specific Language Impairment and Dyslexia? J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2020;63(10):3277-92.
5. Lorusso ML, Toraldo A. Revisiting Multifactor Models of Dyslexia: Do They Fit Empirical Data and What Are Their Implications for Intervention? Brain Sci. 2023;13(2):328.
6. Wolf M, Gotlieb RJM, Kim SA, Pedroza V, Rhinehart LV, Tempini MLG, et al. Towards a dynamic, comprehensive conceptualization of dyslexia. Ann Dyslexia. 2024;74(3):303-24.
7. Archer K, Pammer K, Vidyasagar TR. A Temporal Sampling Basis for Visual Processing in Developmental Dyslexia. Front Hum Neurosci. 2020;14:213.
8. Lasnick OHM, Hoeft F. Sensory temporal sampling in time: an integrated model of the TSF and neural noise hypothesis as an etiological pathway for dyslexia. Front Hum Neurosci. 2023;17:1294941.
9. Sanfilippo J, Ness M, Petscher Y, Rappaport L, Zuckerman B, Gaab N. Reintroducing Dyslexia: Early Identification and Implications for Pediatric Practice. Pediatrics. 2020;146(1):e20193046.
10. Aro T, Eklund K, Eloranta AK, Närhi V, Korhonen E, Ahonen T. Associations Between Childhood Learning Disabilities and Adult-Age Mental Health Problems, Lack of Education, and Unemployment. J Learn Disabil. 2019;52(1):71-83.
11. Martin A, Kronbichler M, Richlan F. Dyslexic brain activation abnormalities in deep and shallow orthographies: A meta-analysis of 28 functional neuroimaging studies. Hum Brain Mapp. 2016;37(7):2676-99.
12. Devoto F, Carioti D, Danelli L, Berlingeri M. A meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies on developmental dyslexia across European orthographies: the ADOD model. Lang Cogn Neurosci. 2022;37(3):285-314.
13. Li Y, Bi HY. Comparative research on neural dysfunction in children with dyslexia under different writing systems: A meta-analysis study. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2022;137:104650.
14. Munzer T, Hussain K, Soares N. Dyslexia: neurobiology, clinical features, evaluation and management. Transl Pediatr. 2020;9(Suppl 1):S36-s45.
15. Hernández-Vásquez R, Córdova García U, Barreto AMB, Rojas MLR, Ponce-Meza J, Saavedra-López M. An Overview on Electrophysiological and Neuroimaging Findings in Dyslexia. Iran J Psychiatry. 2023;18(4):503-9.
16. Turker S, Hartwigsen G. Exploring the neurobiology of reading through non-invasive brain stimulation: A review. Cortex. 2021;141:497-521.
17. Richlan F. The Functional Neuroanatomy of Developmental Dyslexia Across Languages and Writing Systems. Front Psychol. 2020;11:155.
18. Vandermosten M, Hoeft F, Norton ES. Integrating MRI brain imaging studies of pre-reading children with current theories of developmental dyslexia: A review and quantitative meta-analysis. Curr Opin Behav Sci. 2016;10:155-61.
19. Habib M. The Neurological Basis of Developmental Dyslexia and Related Disorders: A Reappraisal of the Temporal Hypothesis, Twenty Years on. Brain Sci. 2021;11(6):708.
20. Farah R, Ionta S, Horowitz-Kraus T. Neuro-Behavioral Correlates of Executive Dysfunctions in Dyslexia Over Development From Childhood to Adulthood. Front Psychol. 2021;12:708863.
21. Nukari JM, Poutiainen ET, Arkkila EP, Haapanen ML, Lipsanen JO, Laasonen MR. Both Individual and Group-Based Neuropsychological Interventions of Dyslexia Improve Processing Speed in Young Adults: A Randomized Controlled Study. J Learn Disabil. 2020;53(3):213-27.
22. Galuschka K, Görgen R, Kalmar J, Haberstroh S, Schmalz X, Schulte-Körne G. Effectiveness of spelling interventions for learners with dyslexia: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Educational Psychologist. 2020;55(1):1-20.
23. Akyurek G, Koca RB, Gunal Gunser R. Systematic review of current approaches to cognitive skills in children with dyslexia. Curr Psychol. 2024;43(18):16247-63.
24. Hall C, Dahl‐Leonard K, Cho E, Solari EJ, Capin P, Conner CL, et al. Forty years of reading intervention research for elementary students with or at risk for dyslexia: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Read Res Q. 2023;58(2):285-312.
25. Vander Stappen C, Dricot L, Van Reybroeck M. RAN training in dyslexia: Behavioral and brain correlates. Neuropsychologia. 2020;146:107566.
26. Lazzaro G, Costanzo F, Varuzza C, Rossi S, De Matteis ME, Vicari S, et al. Individual differences modulate the effects of tDCS on reading in children and adolescents with dyslexia. Sci Stud Read. 2021;25(6):470-85.
27. Piccoli E, Cerioli M, Castiglioni M, Larini L, Scarpa C, Dell'Osso B. Recent innovations in non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) for the treatment of unipolar and bipolar depression: a narrative review. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2022;34(7-8):715-26.
28. Tabasi M, Mostafavi SA, Oreyzi H, Mohammadi MR, Khaleghi A. The Effectiveness of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) and Omega-3 on Food Craving, Executive Functions, Weight, and Depressive Symptoms in Patients with Depression and Overweight: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Iran J Psychiatry. 2024;19(2):158-73.
29. Mostafavi SA, Khaleghi A, Mohammadi MR, Akhondzadeh S. Is transcranial direct current stimulation an effective modality in reducing food craving? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr Neurosci. 2020;23(1):55-67.
30. Mostafavi SA, Khaleghi A, Mohammadi MR. Noninvasive brain stimulation in alcohol craving: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2020;101:109938.
31. Khaleghi A, Pirzad Jahromi G, Zarafshan H, Mostafavi SA, Mohammadi MR. Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation of prefrontal cortex on risk-taking behavior. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2020;74(9):455-65.
32. Hajloo N, Pouresmali A, Alizadeh Goradel J, Mowlaie M. The Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation of Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex on Reduction of Craving in Daily and Social Smokers. Iran J Psychiatry. 2019;14(4):291-6.
33. Khaleghi A, Zarafshan H, Vand SR, Mohammadi MR. Effects of Non-invasive Neurostimulation on Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2020;18(4):527-52.
34. Kidwai J, Sharma S, Peper M, Brumberg J. Investigating NIBS for language rehabilitation in aphasia. Aphasiology. 2023;37(8):1285-314.
35. Siebner HR, Funke K, Aberra AS, Antal A, Bestmann S, Chen R, et al. Transcranial magnetic stimulation of the brain: What is stimulated? - A consensus and critical position paper. Clin Neurophysiol. 2022;140:59-97.
36. Goldsworthy MR, Hordacre B, Rothwell JC, Ridding MC. Effects of rTMS on the brain: is there value in variability? Cortex. 2021;139:43-59.
37. Dadgar H, Majidi H, Aghaei S. Biological and Neurobiological Mechanisms of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation. Iran J Psychiatry. 2022;17(3):350-5.
38. Santander T, Leslie S, Li LJ, Skinner HE, Simonson JM, Sweeney P, et al. Towards optimized methodological parameters for maximizing the behavioral effects of transcranial direct current stimulation. Front Hum Neurosci. 2024;18:1305446.
39. Khaleghi A, Mohammadi MR, Shahi K, Nasrabadi AM. Computational Neuroscience Approach to Psychiatry: A Review on Theory-driven Approaches. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2022;20(1):26-36.
40. Turker S, Hartwigsen G. The use of noninvasive brain stimulation techniques to improve reading difficulties in dyslexia: A systematic review. Hum Brain Mapp. 2022;43(3):1157-73.
41. Cuschieri S. The CONSORT statement. Saudi J Anaesth. 2019;13(Suppl 1):S27-s30.
42. Rufener KS, Zaehle T, Krauel K. Combined multi-session transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) and language skills training improves individual gamma band activity and literacy skills in developmental dyslexia. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2023;64:101317.
43. Mirahadi SS, Nitsche MA, Pahlavanzadeh B, Mohamadi R, Ashayeri H, Abolghasemi J. Reading and phonological awareness improvement accomplished by transcranial direct current stimulation combined with phonological awareness training: A randomized controlled trial. Appl Neuropsychol Child. 2023;12(2):137-49.
44. Fazel S, Rostamoghli Z. The effectiveness of Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) on attention and working memory in students with dyslexia. J Learn Disabil. 2023;13(1):17-28.
45. Rahimi V, Mohammadkhani G, Alaghband Rad J, Mousavi SZ, Khalili ME. Modulation of auditory temporal processing, speech in noise perception, auditory-verbal memory, and reading efficiency by anodal tDCS in children with dyslexia. Neuropsychologia. 2022;177:108427.
46. Werchowski M, Stenner T, Splittgerber M, Siniatchkin M, Nees F, Hartwigsen G, et al. No effects of prefrontal multichannel tACS at individual alpha frequency on phonological decisions. Clin Neurophysiol. 2022;142:96-108.
47. Battisti A, Lazzaro G, Costanzo F, Varuzza C, Rossi S, Vicari S, et al. Effects of a short and intensive transcranial direct current stimulation treatment in children and adolescents with developmental dyslexia: A crossover clinical trial. Front Psychol. 2022;13:986242.
48. Lazzaro G, Bertoni S, Menghini D, Costanzo F, Franceschini S, Varuzza C, et al. Beyond Reading Modulation: Temporo-Parietal tDCS Alters Visuo-Spatial Attention and Motion Perception in Dyslexia. Brain Sci. 2021;11(2):263.
49. Cummine J, Villarena M, Onysyk T, Devlin JT. A Study of Null Effects for the Use of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) in Adults With and Without Reading Impairment. Neurobiol Lang (Camb). 2020;1(4):434-51.
50. Marchesotti S, Nicolle J, Merlet I, Arnal LH, Donoghue JP, Giraud AL. Selective enhancement of low-gamma activity by tACS improves phonemic processing and reading accuracy in dyslexia. PLoS Biol. 2020;18(9):e3000833.
51. Costanzo F, Rossi S, Varuzza C, Varvara P, Vicari S, Menghini D. Long-lasting improvement following tDCS treatment combined with a training for reading in children and adolescents with dyslexia. Neuropsychologia. 2019;130:38-43.
52. Rahimi V, Mohamadkhani G, Alaghband-Rad J, Kermani FR, Nikfarjad H, Marofizade S. Modulation of temporal resolution and speech long-latency auditory-evoked potentials by transcranial direct current stimulation in children and adolescents with dyslexia. Exp Brain Res. 2019;237(3):873-82.
53. Rufener KS, Krauel K, Meyer M, Heinze HJ, Zaehle T. Transcranial electrical stimulation improves phoneme processing in developmental dyslexia. Brain Stimul. 2019;12(4):930-7.
54. Costanzo F, Varuzza C, Rossi S, Sdoia S, Varvara P, Oliveri M, et al. Evidence for reading improvement following tDCS treatment in children and adolescents with Dyslexia. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2016;34(2):215-26.
55. Costanzo F, Varuzza C, Rossi S, Sdoia S, Varvara P, Oliveri M, et al. Reading changes in children and adolescents with dyslexia after transcranial direct current stimulation. Neuroreport. 2016;27(5):295-300.
56. Heth I, Lavidor M. Improved reading measures in adults with dyslexia following transcranial direct current stimulation treatment. Neuropsychologia. 2015;70:107-13.
57. Costanzo F, Menghini D, Caltagirone C, Oliveri M, Vicari S. How to improve reading skills in dyslexics: the effect of high frequency rTMS. Neuropsychologia. 2013;51(14):2953-9.
58. Kearns DM, Hancock R, Hoeft F, Pugh KR, Frost SJ. The neurobiology of dyslexia. Teaching Exceptional Children. 2019;51(3):175-88.
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| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 20 No 2 (2025) | |
| Section | Review Article(s) | |
| Keywords | ||
| Developmental Dyslexia Magnetic Stimulation Reading Systematic Review tDCS Transcranial Transcranial Electrical Stimulations | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Naghavi A, Dadgar H, Daraei G, Modarreszadeh A. On the Effects of Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation Techniques on Developmental Dyslexia: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Iran J Psychiatry. 2025;20(2):209-222.
