The Role of Emotional Schemas in Binge Eating and Bedtime Procrastination
,
Abstract
Objective: Given the increasing prevalence of binge eating disorder (BED) and bedtime procrastination (BP) among university students, as well as the notable absence of validated Arabic instruments to assess these behaviors, this study aimed to investigate the role of emotional schemas in BED and BP among university students. By examining these emotional schemas, the study sought to shed light on a potential shared underlying mechanism contributing to both BED and BP, and to adapt and validate the Bedtime Procrastination Scale (BPS) for Arabic-speaking populations.
Method: Three samples of Iraqi university students were recruited. The first sample (n = 835) was used for the validation of the Arabic version of the BPS. The second sample (n = 58) was utilized for convergent validity testing, and the third sample (n = 490) was examined for exploring the associations between emotional schemas, BED, and BP.
Results: Analyses revealed that maladaptive emotional schemas—particularly devalued, non-acceptance of feelings, incomprehensibility, numbness, blame, and low consensus—accounted for 18.2% of the variance in BED. Additionally, important findings emerged for BP, where incomprehensibility, non-acceptance of feelings and simplistic view of emotion accounted for 5.8% of the variance. Additionally, the Arabic adaptation of the BPS demonstrated robust psychometric properties and confirmed a two-factor structure consistent with previous cultural adaptations.
Conclusion: These findings underscore the necessity of addressing emotional schemas in therapeutic interventions to reduce BED and BP. Furthermore, the validated Arabic BPS offers a vital tool for future research and assessment in Arabic-speaking contexts.
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5. Eisenberg D, Hunt J, Speer N. Mental health in American colleges and universities: variation across student subgroups and across campuses. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2013;201(1):60-7.
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7. He J, Zhang Y, Liu Z, Barnhart WR, Cui S, Chen S, et al. Exploring the self-perceived causes of eating disorders among Chinese social media users with self-reported eating disorders. J Eat Disord. 2024;12(1):201.
8. Melisse B, de Beurs E, van Furth EF. Eating disorders in the Arab world: a literature review. J Eat Disord. 2020;8(1):59.
9. Schulte SJ. Predictors of binge eating in male and female youths in the United Arab Emirates. Appetite. 2016;105:312-9.
10. Keski-Rahkonen A. Epidemiology of binge eating disorder: prevalence, course, comorbidity, and risk factors. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2021;34(6):525-31.
11. Fatima T, Beigh M, Hussain SZ. Binge eating disorder: Causes, consequences and management. International Journal of Unani and Integrative Medicine. 2018;2(2):20-3.
12. Hudson JI, Hiripi E, Pope HG, Jr., Kessler RC. The prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;61(3):348-58.
13. Serra R, Kiekens G, Vanderlinden J, Vrieze E, Auerbach RP, Benjet C, et al. Binge eating and purging in first-year college students: Prevalence, psychiatric comorbidity, and academic performance. Int J Eat Disord. 2020;53(3):339-48.
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18. Herzog-Krzywoszanska R, Krzywoszanski L. Bedtime Procrastination, Sleep-Related Behaviors, and Demographic Factors in an Online Survey on a Polish Sample. Front Neurosci. 2019;13:963.
19. Demir Kösem D, Bektaş M, Magalhães P. Investigation of the Turkish Psychometric Properties of Bedtime Procrastination and While-in-Bed Procrastination Scales for Adolescents. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. 2024;42(3):624-39.
20. Cai X, Gao Y, Fang Y-W. Validity and reliability of the Chinese bedtime procrastination scale among college students. 2022.
21. Hazumi M, Kawamura A, Yoshiike T, Matsui K, Kitamura S, Tsuru A, et al. Development and validation of the Japanese version of the Bedtime Procrastination Scale (BPS-J). BMC Psychol. 2024;12(1):56.
22. Rasouli A, Seraji HT, Nejad-Ebrahim Soumee Z, Jahanbakhsh S, Javadi V, Saed O. Assessing Bedtime Procrastination in Iran: Psychometric Properties and Predictive Value for Insomnia. Behav Sleep Med. 2025;23(1):105-17.
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25. Gormally J, Black S, Daston S, Rardin D. The assessment of binge eating severity among obese persons. Addict Behav. 1982;7(1):47-55.
26. Leahy RL. A model of emotional schemas. Cogn Behav Pract. 2002;9(3):177-90.
27. Leahy RL. Emotional schema therapy: A meta‐experiential model. Australian Psychologist. 2016;51(2):82-8.
28. Tirch DD, Leahy RL, Silberstein LR, Melwani PS. Emotional schemas, psychological flexibility, and anxiety: The role of flexible response patterns to anxious arousal. Int J Cogn Ther. 2012;5(4):380-91.
29. Nazari F, Gharraee B, Zahedi Tajrishi K. Mediating role of emotion dysregulation, experiential avoidance, and rumination in the relationship of emotional schemas with obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms. Iran J Psychiatry. 2023;28(4):466-79.
30. Leahy RL, Tirch DD, Melwani PS. Processes underlying depression: Risk aversion, emotional schemas, and psychological flexibility. Int J Cogn Ther. 2012;5(4):362-79.
31. Sirota NA, Moskovchenko DV, Yaltonsky VM, Yaltonskaya AV. The role of emotional schemas in anxiety and depression among russian medical students. Psychology in Russia: state of the art. 2018;11(4):130-43.
32. Kim G, Jeon H, Suh S. Bedtime procrastination as a mediator in the relationship between active emotion regulation strategies and insomnia. Sleep Med. 2021;18(3):175-81.
33. Liu N, Wang J, Zang W. The Impact of Sleep Determination on Procrastination before Bedtime: The Role of Anxiety. Int J Ment Health Promot. 2024;26(5).
34. Hou X, Hu J. Depression and bedtime procrastination: Chain mediation of brooding and perceived stress. Heliyon. 2023;9(12):e22672.
35. Tochigi M, Usami S, Matamura M, Kitagawa Y, Fukushima M, Yonehara H, et al. Annual longitudinal survey at up to five time points reveals reciprocal effects of bedtime delay and depression/anxiety in adolescents. Sleep Med. 2016;17:81-6.
36. Nunnally JC. Teoría psicométrica. 1995.
37. Fathy MG, Mandoob KJ. Arabic Version of the Leahy Emotional Schemas Scale-II. Iran J Psychiatry. 2025;20(1):77-92.
38. Greeno CG, Marcus MD, Wing RR. Diagnosis of binge eating disorder: discrepancies between a questionnaire and clinical interview. Int J Eat Disord. 1995;17(2):153-60.
39. Zeidan RK, Haddad C, Hallit R, Akel M, Honein K, Akiki M, et al. Validation of the Arabic version of the binge eating scale and correlates of binge eating disorder among a sample of the Lebanese population. J Eat Disord. 2019;7:40.
40. Beaton DE, Bombardier C, Guillemin F, Ferraz MB. Guidelines for the process of cross-cultural adaptation of self-report measures. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2000;25(24):3186-91.
41. Sousa VD, Rojjanasrirat W. Translation, adaptation and validation of instruments or scales for use in cross-cultural health care research: a clear and user-friendly guideline. J Eval Clin Pract. 2011;17(2):268-74.
42. Tangney JP, Baumeister RF, Boone AL. High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. J Pers. 2004;72(2):271-324.
43. Steel PDG. The measurement and nature of procrastination: University of Minnesota; 2002.
44. Chahine A, Yakın E, Malaeb D, Hallit R, Obeid S, Hallit S, et al. Psychometric validation of the Arabic version of the Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS). 2024.
45. Kaiser HF. An index of factorial simplicity. psychometrika. 1974;39(1):31-6.
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48. Browne MW, Cudeck R. Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sociological methods & research. 1992;21(2):230-58.
49. Schermelleh-Engel K, Moosbrugger H, Müller H. Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of psychological research online. 2003;8(2):23-74.
50. Dingemans A, Danner U, Parks M. Emotion Regulation in Binge Eating Disorder: A Review. Nutrients. 2017;9(11)1247:.
51. Zeeck A, Stelzer N, Linster HW, Joos A, Hartmann A. Emotion and eating in binge eating disorder and obesity. Eur Eat Disord Rev. 2011;19(5):426-37.
52. Dakanalis A, Mentzelou M, Papadopoulou SK, Papandreou D, Spanoudaki M, Vasios GK, et al. The Association of Emotional Eating with Overweight/Obesity, Depression, Anxiety/Stress, and Dietary Patterns: A Review of the Current Clinical Evidence. Nutrients. 2023;15(5):1173.
53. Araujo DM, Santos GF, Nardi AE. Binge eating disorder and depression: a systematic review. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2010;11(2 Pt 2):199-207.
54. Safi S, Razmpoosh E, Haghani M, Nadjarzadeh A, Abolghasemi S. The relation of anxiety, depression, and happiness with binge eating disorder among binge eating applicants of weight-loss. Journal of Nutrition and Food Security. 2017;2(2):141-8.
55. Sardarzadeh S. Dominant cognitive and emotional schemas in depression and anxiety disorders. Вісник післядипломної освіти: зб наук пр Сер Соціальні та поведінкові науки Сер Управління та адміністрування ПОЧАТОК. 2019;7(36):161-78.
56. Leppanen J, Brown D, McLinden H, Williams S, Tchanturia K. The Role of Emotion Regulation in Eating Disorders: A Network Meta-Analysis Approach. Front Psychiatry. 2022;13:793094.
57. Marco JH, Cañabate M, Pérez S. Meaning in life is associated with the psychopathology of eating disorders: differences depending on the diagnosis. Eat Disord. 2019;27(6):550-64.
58. Hoesni SM, Salleh NA. Exploring relationships between meaning in life and emotional health among young adults of Malaysian undergraduate students. Int J Acad Res Progress Educ Dev. 2022;11:442-53.
59. McKnight PE, Kashdan TB. Purpose in life as a system that creates and sustains health and well-being: An integrative, testable theory. Rev Gen Psychol. 2009;13(3):242-51.
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2. Laboe AA, Shah J, Fitzsimmons-Craft EE. The Transition to College as a risk factor for eating disorders. Eating Disorders: An International Comprehensive View: Springer; 2023. p. 1-17.
3. Rivera Gómez AK, Perafán Collazos JF, Prieto JL, Pinzón PV, Ávila González GI, Nino Castaño VE, et al. Prolonged chronic academic stress and its relationship with cytokine dysregulation in health science students. Stress Health. 2024;40(3):e3363.
4. Stice E, Marti CN, Rohde P. Prevalence, incidence, impairment, and course of the proposed DSM-5 eating disorder diagnoses in an 8-year prospective community study of young women. J Abnorm Psychol. 2013;122(2):445-57.
5. Eisenberg D, Hunt J, Speer N. Mental health in American colleges and universities: variation across student subgroups and across campuses. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2013;201(1):60-7.
6. Hoerr SL, Bokram R, Lugo B, Bivins T, Keast DR. Risk for disordered eating relates to both gender and ethnicity for college students. J Am Coll Nutr. 2002;21(4):307-14.
7. He J, Zhang Y, Liu Z, Barnhart WR, Cui S, Chen S, et al. Exploring the self-perceived causes of eating disorders among Chinese social media users with self-reported eating disorders. J Eat Disord. 2024;12(1):201.
8. Melisse B, de Beurs E, van Furth EF. Eating disorders in the Arab world: a literature review. J Eat Disord. 2020;8(1):59.
9. Schulte SJ. Predictors of binge eating in male and female youths in the United Arab Emirates. Appetite. 2016;105:312-9.
10. Keski-Rahkonen A. Epidemiology of binge eating disorder: prevalence, course, comorbidity, and risk factors. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2021;34(6):525-31.
11. Fatima T, Beigh M, Hussain SZ. Binge eating disorder: Causes, consequences and management. International Journal of Unani and Integrative Medicine. 2018;2(2):20-3.
12. Hudson JI, Hiripi E, Pope HG, Jr., Kessler RC. The prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;61(3):348-58.
13. Serra R, Kiekens G, Vanderlinden J, Vrieze E, Auerbach RP, Benjet C, et al. Binge eating and purging in first-year college students: Prevalence, psychiatric comorbidity, and academic performance. Int J Eat Disord. 2020;53(3):339-48.
14. Lydecker JA, Grilo CM. Comparing men and women with binge-eating disorder and co-morbid obesity. Int J Eat Disord. 2018;51(5):411-7.
15. Kroese FM, De Ridder DT, Evers C, Adriaanse MA. Bedtime procrastination: introducing a new area of procrastination. Front Psychol. 2014;5:611.
16. Magalhães P, Cruz V, Teixeira S, Fuentes S, Rosário P. An Exploratory Study on Sleep Procrastination: Bedtime vs. While-in-Bed Procrastination. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(16):5892
17. Alshammari TK, Rogowska AM, Basharahil RF, Alomar SF, Alseraye SS, Al Juffali LA, et al. Examining bedtime procrastination, study engagement, and studyholism in undergraduate students, and their association with insomnia. Front Psychol. 2022;13:1111038.
18. Herzog-Krzywoszanska R, Krzywoszanski L. Bedtime Procrastination, Sleep-Related Behaviors, and Demographic Factors in an Online Survey on a Polish Sample. Front Neurosci. 2019;13:963.
19. Demir Kösem D, Bektaş M, Magalhães P. Investigation of the Turkish Psychometric Properties of Bedtime Procrastination and While-in-Bed Procrastination Scales for Adolescents. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy. 2024;42(3):624-39.
20. Cai X, Gao Y, Fang Y-W. Validity and reliability of the Chinese bedtime procrastination scale among college students. 2022.
21. Hazumi M, Kawamura A, Yoshiike T, Matsui K, Kitamura S, Tsuru A, et al. Development and validation of the Japanese version of the Bedtime Procrastination Scale (BPS-J). BMC Psychol. 2024;12(1):56.
22. Rasouli A, Seraji HT, Nejad-Ebrahim Soumee Z, Jahanbakhsh S, Javadi V, Saed O. Assessing Bedtime Procrastination in Iran: Psychometric Properties and Predictive Value for Insomnia. Behav Sleep Med. 2025;23(1):105-17.
23. Jiang K, editor Review on binge eating disorder: Theories, influencing factors and treatments. 2021 2nd International Conference on Mental Health and Humanities Education (ICMHHE 2021); 2021: Atlantis Press.
24. McManus F, Waller G. A functional analysis of binge-eating. Clin Psychol Rev. 1995;15(8):845-63.
25. Gormally J, Black S, Daston S, Rardin D. The assessment of binge eating severity among obese persons. Addict Behav. 1982;7(1):47-55.
26. Leahy RL. A model of emotional schemas. Cogn Behav Pract. 2002;9(3):177-90.
27. Leahy RL. Emotional schema therapy: A meta‐experiential model. Australian Psychologist. 2016;51(2):82-8.
28. Tirch DD, Leahy RL, Silberstein LR, Melwani PS. Emotional schemas, psychological flexibility, and anxiety: The role of flexible response patterns to anxious arousal. Int J Cogn Ther. 2012;5(4):380-91.
29. Nazari F, Gharraee B, Zahedi Tajrishi K. Mediating role of emotion dysregulation, experiential avoidance, and rumination in the relationship of emotional schemas with obsessive-compulsive disorder symptoms. Iran J Psychiatry. 2023;28(4):466-79.
30. Leahy RL, Tirch DD, Melwani PS. Processes underlying depression: Risk aversion, emotional schemas, and psychological flexibility. Int J Cogn Ther. 2012;5(4):362-79.
31. Sirota NA, Moskovchenko DV, Yaltonsky VM, Yaltonskaya AV. The role of emotional schemas in anxiety and depression among russian medical students. Psychology in Russia: state of the art. 2018;11(4):130-43.
32. Kim G, Jeon H, Suh S. Bedtime procrastination as a mediator in the relationship between active emotion regulation strategies and insomnia. Sleep Med. 2021;18(3):175-81.
33. Liu N, Wang J, Zang W. The Impact of Sleep Determination on Procrastination before Bedtime: The Role of Anxiety. Int J Ment Health Promot. 2024;26(5).
34. Hou X, Hu J. Depression and bedtime procrastination: Chain mediation of brooding and perceived stress. Heliyon. 2023;9(12):e22672.
35. Tochigi M, Usami S, Matamura M, Kitagawa Y, Fukushima M, Yonehara H, et al. Annual longitudinal survey at up to five time points reveals reciprocal effects of bedtime delay and depression/anxiety in adolescents. Sleep Med. 2016;17:81-6.
36. Nunnally JC. Teoría psicométrica. 1995.
37. Fathy MG, Mandoob KJ. Arabic Version of the Leahy Emotional Schemas Scale-II. Iran J Psychiatry. 2025;20(1):77-92.
38. Greeno CG, Marcus MD, Wing RR. Diagnosis of binge eating disorder: discrepancies between a questionnaire and clinical interview. Int J Eat Disord. 1995;17(2):153-60.
39. Zeidan RK, Haddad C, Hallit R, Akel M, Honein K, Akiki M, et al. Validation of the Arabic version of the binge eating scale and correlates of binge eating disorder among a sample of the Lebanese population. J Eat Disord. 2019;7:40.
40. Beaton DE, Bombardier C, Guillemin F, Ferraz MB. Guidelines for the process of cross-cultural adaptation of self-report measures. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2000;25(24):3186-91.
41. Sousa VD, Rojjanasrirat W. Translation, adaptation and validation of instruments or scales for use in cross-cultural health care research: a clear and user-friendly guideline. J Eval Clin Pract. 2011;17(2):268-74.
42. Tangney JP, Baumeister RF, Boone AL. High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. J Pers. 2004;72(2):271-324.
43. Steel PDG. The measurement and nature of procrastination: University of Minnesota; 2002.
44. Chahine A, Yakın E, Malaeb D, Hallit R, Obeid S, Hallit S, et al. Psychometric validation of the Arabic version of the Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS). 2024.
45. Kaiser HF. An index of factorial simplicity. psychometrika. 1974;39(1):31-6.
46. Hair Jr JF, Black WC, Babin BJ, Anderson RE. Multivariate data analysis. Multivariate data analysis2010. p. 785-.
47. Kline RB. Principles and practice of structural equation modeling: Guilford publications; 2023.
48. Browne MW, Cudeck R. Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sociological methods & research. 1992;21(2):230-58.
49. Schermelleh-Engel K, Moosbrugger H, Müller H. Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods of psychological research online. 2003;8(2):23-74.
50. Dingemans A, Danner U, Parks M. Emotion Regulation in Binge Eating Disorder: A Review. Nutrients. 2017;9(11)1247:.
51. Zeeck A, Stelzer N, Linster HW, Joos A, Hartmann A. Emotion and eating in binge eating disorder and obesity. Eur Eat Disord Rev. 2011;19(5):426-37.
52. Dakanalis A, Mentzelou M, Papadopoulou SK, Papandreou D, Spanoudaki M, Vasios GK, et al. The Association of Emotional Eating with Overweight/Obesity, Depression, Anxiety/Stress, and Dietary Patterns: A Review of the Current Clinical Evidence. Nutrients. 2023;15(5):1173.
53. Araujo DM, Santos GF, Nardi AE. Binge eating disorder and depression: a systematic review. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2010;11(2 Pt 2):199-207.
54. Safi S, Razmpoosh E, Haghani M, Nadjarzadeh A, Abolghasemi S. The relation of anxiety, depression, and happiness with binge eating disorder among binge eating applicants of weight-loss. Journal of Nutrition and Food Security. 2017;2(2):141-8.
55. Sardarzadeh S. Dominant cognitive and emotional schemas in depression and anxiety disorders. Вісник післядипломної освіти: зб наук пр Сер Соціальні та поведінкові науки Сер Управління та адміністрування ПОЧАТОК. 2019;7(36):161-78.
56. Leppanen J, Brown D, McLinden H, Williams S, Tchanturia K. The Role of Emotion Regulation in Eating Disorders: A Network Meta-Analysis Approach. Front Psychiatry. 2022;13:793094.
57. Marco JH, Cañabate M, Pérez S. Meaning in life is associated with the psychopathology of eating disorders: differences depending on the diagnosis. Eat Disord. 2019;27(6):550-64.
58. Hoesni SM, Salleh NA. Exploring relationships between meaning in life and emotional health among young adults of Malaysian undergraduate students. Int J Acad Res Progress Educ Dev. 2022;11:442-53.
59. McKnight PE, Kashdan TB. Purpose in life as a system that creates and sustains health and well-being: An integrative, testable theory. Rev Gen Psychol. 2009;13(3):242-51.
60. Aladwan F, Alzaben M, Almahaireh A, Sulaiman M. The meaning of life and its relations with unhealthy behaviors among Syrian adolescent refugees enrolled in public schools in Jordan. Journal of Social Studies Education Research. 2021;12(4):384-404.
61. Flynn JJ, Hollenstein T, Mackey A. The effect of suppressing and not accepting emotions on depressive symptoms: Is suppression different for men and women? Pers Individ Dif. 2010;49(6):582-6.
62. Leahy RL. Introduction: Emotional schemas and emotional schema therapy. Int J Cogn Ther. 2019;12(1):1-4.
63. Berking M, Wupperman P. Emotion regulation and mental health: recent findings, current challenges, and future directions. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2012;25(2):128-34.
64. Aldao A, Nolen-Hoeksema S, Schweizer S. Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2010;30(2):217-37.
65. Hayes S, Strosahl K, Wilson K. Acceptance and commitment therapy: An experiential approach to behavior change. 1999. New York: Guilford. 2005.
66. Mason TB, Lavender JM, Wonderlich SA, Steiger H, Cao L, Engel SG, et al. Comfortably numb: The role of momentary dissociation in the experience of negative affect around binge eating. The Journal of nervous and mental disease. 2017;205(5):335-9.
67. Froreich FV, Vartanian LR, Grisham JR, Touyz SW. Dimensions of control and their relation to disordered eating behaviours and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. J Eat Disord. 2016;4:14.
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| Issue | Articles in Press | |
| Section | Original Article(s) | |
| Keywords | ||
| Binge Eating Disorder Emotions Factor Analysis Procrastination Schemas | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Fathy M, Mandoob K. The Role of Emotional Schemas in Binge Eating and Bedtime Procrastination. Iran J Psychiatry. 2025;:1-17.
