Mediating Role of Cognitive Flexibilities in the Relationship between Parenting Styles and Self-Esteem among Children
Abstract
Objective: The growing acknowledgment of self-esteem as an essential element of psychological well-being has highlighted the influence of parenting styles on the self-esteem of children as a significant concern in developmental psychology. This study enhances prior research on the association between self-esteem and parenting styles by investigating the mediating effect of cognitive flexibility.
Method: This research is a quantitative, cross-sectional, correlational study carried out in 2024 involving children between the ages of 6 and 12 in Beijing, China. Parents who volunteered participated by filling out self-report surveys, such as the short version of the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), and the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI). These surveys were distributed via a Sojump link shared on social media. For the statistical analysis, descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation analysis, and path analysis were employed.
Results: A total of 150 children took part in this survey. The correlation analysis revealed that there were positive associations between the authoritative parenting style and the cognitive flexibility scale among children (r = 0.325, P < 0.01) and cognitive flexibility and self-esteem (r = 0.448, P < 0.01). There was also a significant negative correlation between authoritative parenting and authoritarian parenting (r = -0.402, P < 0.01). Moreover, results support the mediational hypothesis. However, the authoritative parenting style is no longer a significant contributor to self-esteem among children after controlling for cognitive flexibility as the mediator, β = 0.11, SE = 0.10, t = 1.06, P = 0.2897, 95% CI [-0.0941, 0.3131], suggesting a full mediation. This result indicated that the indirect coefficient was significant β = 0.1919, SE = 0.0595, 95% CI [0.0846, 0.3160].
Conclusion: The results of this study present an intriguing profile suggesting that certain psychological factors, such as authoritative parenting and cognitive flexibility, may enhance children's to self-esteem development. This research offers valuable insights for parents, educators, policymakers, and future researchers regarding the significance of authoritative parenting and cognitive flexibility in shaping children's self-esteem.
1. Gao D, Liu J, Bullock A, Li D, Chen X. Transactional models linking maternal authoritative parenting, child self-esteem, and approach coping strategies. J Appl Dev Psychol. 2021;73:101262.
2. Mandal K, Das S, Datta K, Chowdhoury SR, Datta S. Study to determine the relationship between parenting style and adolescent self-esteem. IP J Paediatr Nurs Sci. 2021;3(4):112-7.
3. Pinquart M, Gerke D-C. Associations of parenting styles with self-esteem in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. J Child Fam Stud. 2019;28:2017-35.
4. Babu N, Fatima M, Arora M. The dynamic nature of parenting practices: a qualitative enquiry of parenting adolescents during COVID-19. Front Psychol. 2024;15:1309786.
5. Kong C, Yasmin F. Impact of Parenting Style on Early Childhood Learning: Mediating Role of Parental Self-Efficacy. Front Psychol. 2022;13:928629.
6. Chen W, Sun Y, He Y. The Relationship between Parental Autonomy Support and Children's Self-Concept in China-The Role of Basic Psychological Needs. Behav Sci (Basel). 2024;14(5):415.
7. Reese AT, Phillips SR, Owens LA, Venable EM, Langergraber KE, Machanda ZP, et al. Age Patterning in Wild Chimpanzee Gut Microbiota Diversity Reveals Differences from Humans in Early Life. Curr Biol. 2021;31(3):613-20.e3.
8. Ahmed SF, Tang S, Waters NE, Davis-Kean P. Executive function and academic achievement: Longitudinal relations from early childhood to adolescence. J Educ Psychol. 2019;111(3):446.
9. Korucu I, Ayturk E, Finders JK, Schnur G, Bailey CS, Tominey SL, et al. Self-Regulation in Preschool: Examining Its Factor Structure and Associations With Pre-academic Skills and Social-Emotional Competence. Front Psychol. 2021;12:717317.
10. Peng B, Hu N, Yu H, Xiao H, Luo J. Parenting Style and Adolescent Mental Health: The Chain Mediating Effects of Self-Esteem and Psychological Inflexibility. Front Psychol. 2021;12:738170.
11. Peterson GW, Cobas JA, Bush KR, Supple A, Wilson SM. Parent-youth relationships and the self-esteem of Chinese adolescents: Collectivism versus individualism. Parent-Youth Relations: Routledge; 2012. p. 537-64.
12. Tian L, Liu B, Huang S, Huebner ES. Perceived social support and school well-being among Chinese early and middle adolescents: The mediational role of self-esteem. Soc Indic Res. 2013;113:991-1008.
13. Khaleghi A, Mohammadi MR, Zandifar A, Ahmadi N, Alavi SS, Ahmadi A, et al. Epidemiology of psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents; in Tehran, 2017. Asian J Psychiatr. 2018;37:146-53.
14. Deng L, Tong T. Parenting style and the development of noncognitive ability in children. China Economic Review. 2020;62:101477.
15. Guan J, Liu B, Ma W, Liu C. The relationship between negative parenting styles and suicidal ideation among Chinese junior middle school students: The roles of negative emotions and hope. Psychol Sch. 2024;61(2):768-86.
16. Yang J, Zhao X. Parenting styles and children’s academic performance: Evidence from middle schools in China. Child Youth Serv Rev. 2020;113:105017.
17. Marcone R, Affuso G, Borrone A. Parenting styles and children’s internalizing-externalizing behavior: The mediating role of behavioral regulation. Curr Psychol. 2020;39(1):13-24.
18. Akhter N, Noor AE, Iqbal S. Impact of parents’ authoritative style on personality traits of children: a case study of Elementary class students in Pakistan. Journal of Elementary Education. 2020;29(2):37-50.
19. Langlinais LA, Howard HA, Houghton JD. Trust me: Interpersonal communication dominance as a tool for influencing interpersonal trust between coworkers. International Journal of Business Communication. 2025;62(1):62-83.
20. Carroll P. Effectiveness of Positive Discipline Parenting Program on Parenting Style, and Child Adaptive Behavior. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2022;53(6):1349-58.
21. Tian L, Liu L, Shan N. Parent-Child Relationships and Resilience Among Chinese Adolescents: The Mediating Role of Self-Esteem. Front Psychol. 2018;9:1030.
22. Liu Y, Sang B, Liu J, Gong S, Ding X. Parental support and homework emotions in Chinese children: mediating roles of homework self-efficacy and emotion regulation strategies. Educational Psychology. 2019;39(5):617-35.
23. Jen C-H, Chen W-W, Wu C-W. Flexible mindset in the family: Filial piety, cognitive flexibility, and general mental health. J Soc Pers Relat. 2019;36(6):1715-30.
24. Khaleghi A, Mohammadi MR, Shahi K, Nasrabadi AM. Computational Neuroscience Approach to Psychiatry: A Review on Theory-driven Approaches. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2022;20(1):26-36.
25. Heimpel NF, Qian X, Song W. Parenting and child self-regulation in Chinese families: A multi-informant study. J Child Fam Stud. 2018;27:2343-53.
26. Motevalli S, Hamzah MSG, Roslan S, Hamzah SRa, Garmjani MG. The Effects of Study Skills Training on Qualitative Academic Achievement among Students. Asian Journal of University Education. 2021;17(3):130-41.
27. Ren X, Ren X, Yan Z, Lu S, Zhou X. Parental Psychological Flexibility and Children's Behavior Problems in Rural Areas in Northeast China: The Mediation of Children's Emotion Regulation. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(23):15788.
28. Wu C-W, Chen W-W, Jen C-H. Emotional intelligence and cognitive flexibility in the relationship between parenting and subjective well-being. J Adult Dev. 2021;28(2):106-15.
29. Pilcher N, Cortazzi M. 'Qualitative'and'quantitative'methods and approaches across subject fields: implications for research values, assumptions, and practices. Quality & Quantity. 2024;58(3):2357-87.
30. Wu C. Statistical inference with non-probability survey samples. Survey Methodology. 2022;48(2):283-311.
31. Andrade C. The Inconvenient Truth About Convenience and Purposive Samples. Indian J Psychol Med. 2021;43(1):86-8.
32. Fu Y, Hou X, Qin Q, Meng H, Xie P, Huang Y, et al. Can parenting styles and dimensions questionnaire (PSDQ) be used in China? Psychology. 2013;4(6):535-40.
33. Wang L, Tian J, Rozelle S. Parenting style and child mental health at preschool age: evidence from rural China. BMC Psychiatry. 2024;24(1):314.
34. Oliveira TD, Costa DS, Albuquerque MR, Malloy-Diniz LF, Miranda DM, de Paula JJ. Cross-cultural adaptation, validity, and reliability of the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire - Short Version (PSDQ) for use in Brazil. Braz J Psychiatry. 2018;40(4):410-9.
35. Gnambs T, Scharl A, Schroeders U. The structure of the Rosenberg self-esteem scale. Z Psychol. 2018.
36. Jiang C, Zhu Y, Luo Y, Tan CS, Mastrotheodoros S, Costa P, et al. Validation of the Chinese version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: evidence from a three-wave longitudinal study. BMC Psychol. 2023;11(1):345.
37. Dennis JP, Vander Wal JS. The cognitive flexibility inventory: Instrument development and estimates of reliability and validity. Ther Res. 2010;34:241-53.
38. Wong SL, Liu TW, Lee CC, Wong P. Translation and Initial Validation of the Chinese (Cantonese) Version of Cognitive Flexibility Inventory Using People with Mental Illness. Mental Illness. 2024;2024(1):7552372.
39. Wang Y, Yang Y, Xiao W-T, Su Q. Validity and reliability of the Chinese version of the cognitive flexibility inventory in college students. Chinese mental health journal. 2016.
40. Setiawati Y, Hartanti DT, Husada D, Irwanto I, Ardani I, Nazmuddin M. Relationship between Paternal and Maternal Parenting Style with Internet Addiction Level of Adolescents. Iran J Psychiatry. 2021;16(4):438-43.
41. Kou S. The relationship between parenting style and self-esteem in adolescents. Journal of Education Humanities and Social Sciences. 2022;5:307-12.
42. Okunlola O, Gesinde A, Odukoya A, editors. Parenting styels and self-esteem of adolescents: A systematic review. 7th International Conference on Education and Social Sciences; 2020.
43. Mohammadkhani S, Foroutan A, Akbari M, Shahbahrami M. Emotional Schemas and Psychological Distress: Mediating Role of Resilience and Cognitive Flexibility. Iran J Psychiatry. 2022;17(3):284-93.
44. Azami MS, Taremian F. Risk Factors Associated with Cyberbullying, Cybervictimization, and Cyberbullying-Victimization in Iran's High School Students. Iran J Psychiatry. 2021;16(3):343-52.
45. Evren C, Cicekci E, Umut G, Evren B, Durmus Cicek K. The Mediating Effects of Self-Esteem and Harm Avoidance on the Association between Social Anxiety Symptoms and Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Symptom Severity in Turkish Inpatients with Alcohol Use Disorder. Iran J Psychiatry. 2021;16(3):281-9.
46. Aremu TA, John-Akinola YO, Desmennu AT. Relationship Between Parenting Styles and Adolescents' Self-Esteem. Int Q Community Health Educ. 2019;39(2):91-9.
47. Szkody E, Steele EH, McKinney C. Effects of parenting styles on psychological problems by self esteem and gender differences. J Fam Issues. 2021;42(9):1931-54.
48. Stenhaug A, Solem S. The path from mindfulness to self-esteem: self-concept-clarity and cognitive flexibility as mediators. Curr Psychol. 2024;43(10):8636-43.
49. Cırcır O, Tagay Ö. The relationships between cognitive flexibility, perfectionism, optimism, self-compassion and psychological well-being: A mixed study. Curr Psychol. 2024;43(22):19830-46.
50. Motevalli S, Sulaiman T, Wong KY, Jaafar WMW. Athletes’ Psycho-physical Training and Cognitive Restructuring Module To Enhance University-athlete Students’ Well-being. Open Psychol J. 2022;15(1).
2. Mandal K, Das S, Datta K, Chowdhoury SR, Datta S. Study to determine the relationship between parenting style and adolescent self-esteem. IP J Paediatr Nurs Sci. 2021;3(4):112-7.
3. Pinquart M, Gerke D-C. Associations of parenting styles with self-esteem in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. J Child Fam Stud. 2019;28:2017-35.
4. Babu N, Fatima M, Arora M. The dynamic nature of parenting practices: a qualitative enquiry of parenting adolescents during COVID-19. Front Psychol. 2024;15:1309786.
5. Kong C, Yasmin F. Impact of Parenting Style on Early Childhood Learning: Mediating Role of Parental Self-Efficacy. Front Psychol. 2022;13:928629.
6. Chen W, Sun Y, He Y. The Relationship between Parental Autonomy Support and Children's Self-Concept in China-The Role of Basic Psychological Needs. Behav Sci (Basel). 2024;14(5):415.
7. Reese AT, Phillips SR, Owens LA, Venable EM, Langergraber KE, Machanda ZP, et al. Age Patterning in Wild Chimpanzee Gut Microbiota Diversity Reveals Differences from Humans in Early Life. Curr Biol. 2021;31(3):613-20.e3.
8. Ahmed SF, Tang S, Waters NE, Davis-Kean P. Executive function and academic achievement: Longitudinal relations from early childhood to adolescence. J Educ Psychol. 2019;111(3):446.
9. Korucu I, Ayturk E, Finders JK, Schnur G, Bailey CS, Tominey SL, et al. Self-Regulation in Preschool: Examining Its Factor Structure and Associations With Pre-academic Skills and Social-Emotional Competence. Front Psychol. 2021;12:717317.
10. Peng B, Hu N, Yu H, Xiao H, Luo J. Parenting Style and Adolescent Mental Health: The Chain Mediating Effects of Self-Esteem and Psychological Inflexibility. Front Psychol. 2021;12:738170.
11. Peterson GW, Cobas JA, Bush KR, Supple A, Wilson SM. Parent-youth relationships and the self-esteem of Chinese adolescents: Collectivism versus individualism. Parent-Youth Relations: Routledge; 2012. p. 537-64.
12. Tian L, Liu B, Huang S, Huebner ES. Perceived social support and school well-being among Chinese early and middle adolescents: The mediational role of self-esteem. Soc Indic Res. 2013;113:991-1008.
13. Khaleghi A, Mohammadi MR, Zandifar A, Ahmadi N, Alavi SS, Ahmadi A, et al. Epidemiology of psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents; in Tehran, 2017. Asian J Psychiatr. 2018;37:146-53.
14. Deng L, Tong T. Parenting style and the development of noncognitive ability in children. China Economic Review. 2020;62:101477.
15. Guan J, Liu B, Ma W, Liu C. The relationship between negative parenting styles and suicidal ideation among Chinese junior middle school students: The roles of negative emotions and hope. Psychol Sch. 2024;61(2):768-86.
16. Yang J, Zhao X. Parenting styles and children’s academic performance: Evidence from middle schools in China. Child Youth Serv Rev. 2020;113:105017.
17. Marcone R, Affuso G, Borrone A. Parenting styles and children’s internalizing-externalizing behavior: The mediating role of behavioral regulation. Curr Psychol. 2020;39(1):13-24.
18. Akhter N, Noor AE, Iqbal S. Impact of parents’ authoritative style on personality traits of children: a case study of Elementary class students in Pakistan. Journal of Elementary Education. 2020;29(2):37-50.
19. Langlinais LA, Howard HA, Houghton JD. Trust me: Interpersonal communication dominance as a tool for influencing interpersonal trust between coworkers. International Journal of Business Communication. 2025;62(1):62-83.
20. Carroll P. Effectiveness of Positive Discipline Parenting Program on Parenting Style, and Child Adaptive Behavior. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2022;53(6):1349-58.
21. Tian L, Liu L, Shan N. Parent-Child Relationships and Resilience Among Chinese Adolescents: The Mediating Role of Self-Esteem. Front Psychol. 2018;9:1030.
22. Liu Y, Sang B, Liu J, Gong S, Ding X. Parental support and homework emotions in Chinese children: mediating roles of homework self-efficacy and emotion regulation strategies. Educational Psychology. 2019;39(5):617-35.
23. Jen C-H, Chen W-W, Wu C-W. Flexible mindset in the family: Filial piety, cognitive flexibility, and general mental health. J Soc Pers Relat. 2019;36(6):1715-30.
24. Khaleghi A, Mohammadi MR, Shahi K, Nasrabadi AM. Computational Neuroscience Approach to Psychiatry: A Review on Theory-driven Approaches. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2022;20(1):26-36.
25. Heimpel NF, Qian X, Song W. Parenting and child self-regulation in Chinese families: A multi-informant study. J Child Fam Stud. 2018;27:2343-53.
26. Motevalli S, Hamzah MSG, Roslan S, Hamzah SRa, Garmjani MG. The Effects of Study Skills Training on Qualitative Academic Achievement among Students. Asian Journal of University Education. 2021;17(3):130-41.
27. Ren X, Ren X, Yan Z, Lu S, Zhou X. Parental Psychological Flexibility and Children's Behavior Problems in Rural Areas in Northeast China: The Mediation of Children's Emotion Regulation. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(23):15788.
28. Wu C-W, Chen W-W, Jen C-H. Emotional intelligence and cognitive flexibility in the relationship between parenting and subjective well-being. J Adult Dev. 2021;28(2):106-15.
29. Pilcher N, Cortazzi M. 'Qualitative'and'quantitative'methods and approaches across subject fields: implications for research values, assumptions, and practices. Quality & Quantity. 2024;58(3):2357-87.
30. Wu C. Statistical inference with non-probability survey samples. Survey Methodology. 2022;48(2):283-311.
31. Andrade C. The Inconvenient Truth About Convenience and Purposive Samples. Indian J Psychol Med. 2021;43(1):86-8.
32. Fu Y, Hou X, Qin Q, Meng H, Xie P, Huang Y, et al. Can parenting styles and dimensions questionnaire (PSDQ) be used in China? Psychology. 2013;4(6):535-40.
33. Wang L, Tian J, Rozelle S. Parenting style and child mental health at preschool age: evidence from rural China. BMC Psychiatry. 2024;24(1):314.
34. Oliveira TD, Costa DS, Albuquerque MR, Malloy-Diniz LF, Miranda DM, de Paula JJ. Cross-cultural adaptation, validity, and reliability of the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire - Short Version (PSDQ) for use in Brazil. Braz J Psychiatry. 2018;40(4):410-9.
35. Gnambs T, Scharl A, Schroeders U. The structure of the Rosenberg self-esteem scale. Z Psychol. 2018.
36. Jiang C, Zhu Y, Luo Y, Tan CS, Mastrotheodoros S, Costa P, et al. Validation of the Chinese version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale: evidence from a three-wave longitudinal study. BMC Psychol. 2023;11(1):345.
37. Dennis JP, Vander Wal JS. The cognitive flexibility inventory: Instrument development and estimates of reliability and validity. Ther Res. 2010;34:241-53.
38. Wong SL, Liu TW, Lee CC, Wong P. Translation and Initial Validation of the Chinese (Cantonese) Version of Cognitive Flexibility Inventory Using People with Mental Illness. Mental Illness. 2024;2024(1):7552372.
39. Wang Y, Yang Y, Xiao W-T, Su Q. Validity and reliability of the Chinese version of the cognitive flexibility inventory in college students. Chinese mental health journal. 2016.
40. Setiawati Y, Hartanti DT, Husada D, Irwanto I, Ardani I, Nazmuddin M. Relationship between Paternal and Maternal Parenting Style with Internet Addiction Level of Adolescents. Iran J Psychiatry. 2021;16(4):438-43.
41. Kou S. The relationship between parenting style and self-esteem in adolescents. Journal of Education Humanities and Social Sciences. 2022;5:307-12.
42. Okunlola O, Gesinde A, Odukoya A, editors. Parenting styels and self-esteem of adolescents: A systematic review. 7th International Conference on Education and Social Sciences; 2020.
43. Mohammadkhani S, Foroutan A, Akbari M, Shahbahrami M. Emotional Schemas and Psychological Distress: Mediating Role of Resilience and Cognitive Flexibility. Iran J Psychiatry. 2022;17(3):284-93.
44. Azami MS, Taremian F. Risk Factors Associated with Cyberbullying, Cybervictimization, and Cyberbullying-Victimization in Iran's High School Students. Iran J Psychiatry. 2021;16(3):343-52.
45. Evren C, Cicekci E, Umut G, Evren B, Durmus Cicek K. The Mediating Effects of Self-Esteem and Harm Avoidance on the Association between Social Anxiety Symptoms and Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Symptom Severity in Turkish Inpatients with Alcohol Use Disorder. Iran J Psychiatry. 2021;16(3):281-9.
46. Aremu TA, John-Akinola YO, Desmennu AT. Relationship Between Parenting Styles and Adolescents' Self-Esteem. Int Q Community Health Educ. 2019;39(2):91-9.
47. Szkody E, Steele EH, McKinney C. Effects of parenting styles on psychological problems by self esteem and gender differences. J Fam Issues. 2021;42(9):1931-54.
48. Stenhaug A, Solem S. The path from mindfulness to self-esteem: self-concept-clarity and cognitive flexibility as mediators. Curr Psychol. 2024;43(10):8636-43.
49. Cırcır O, Tagay Ö. The relationships between cognitive flexibility, perfectionism, optimism, self-compassion and psychological well-being: A mixed study. Curr Psychol. 2024;43(22):19830-46.
50. Motevalli S, Sulaiman T, Wong KY, Jaafar WMW. Athletes’ Psycho-physical Training and Cognitive Restructuring Module To Enhance University-athlete Students’ Well-being. Open Psychol J. 2022;15(1).
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 20 No 2 (2025) | |
| Section | Original Article(s) | |
| Keywords | ||
| Cognitive Flexibility Cross-Sectional Study Parenting Psychological Well-Being Self-Esteem | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
|
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
How to Cite
1.
Mu Y, Motevalli S. Mediating Role of Cognitive Flexibilities in the Relationship between Parenting Styles and Self-Esteem among Children. Iran J Psychiatry. 2025;20(2):200-208.
