Investigation of Relationship with God among Adolescents with Conduct Disorder: A Qualitative Content Analysis
Abstract
Objective: Conduct disorder is characterized by aggressive behavior, cheating or theft, destruction of property, and serious violation of laws before the age of 18. Relationship with God is probably one of the factors that can play a role in preventing delinquent behaviors in individuals with conduct disorder through internal self-control. In this research, we intended to explore the relationship with God among adolescents with conduct disorder.
Method: In this study, we used a directed qualitative content analysis research method. We interviewed 9 boys aged 12-17 years who had conduct disorder with or without substance use disorder at a correctional facility in Tehran. We collected the data using a purposive sampling method and continued until data saturation. All interviews were recorded and then transcribed verbatim. The interviews were analyzed using a content analysis method.
Results: The boys' relationship with God was analyzed. Three themes were extracted from the interviews: 1) Perception of God, 2) Image of God, and 3) Worship.
Conclusion: This study highlighted three main themes: Perception of God, Image of God, and Worship, which shape how adolescents with conduct disorder relate to spirituality. These findings can contribute to the development of culturally appropriate, faith-based therapeutic interventions.
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2. Ghandour RM, Sherman LJ, Vladutiu CJ, Ali MM, Lynch SE, Bitsko RH, et al. Prevalence and Treatment of Depression, Anxiety, and Conduct Problems in US Children. J Pediatr. 2019;206:256-67.e3.
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4. Salmanian M, Asadian-Koohestani F, Mohammadi MR. A systematic review on the prevalence of conduct disorder in the Middle East. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2017;52(11):1337-43.
5. Mohammadi MR, Salmanian M, Keshavarzi Z. The Global Prevalence of Conduct Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Iran J Psychiatry. 2021;16(2):205-25.
6. Salvatore JE, Dick DM. Genetic influences on conduct disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2018;91:91-101.
7. Wesseldijk LW, Bartels M, Vink JM, van Beijsterveldt CEM, Ligthart L, Boomsma DI, et al. Genetic and environmental influences on conduct and antisocial personality problems in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2018;27(9):1123-32.
8. Boden JM, Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ. Risk factors for conduct disorder and oppositional/defiant disorder: evidence from a New Zealand birth cohort. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;49(11):1125-33.
9. Kunitz SJ, Gabriel KR, Levy JE, Henderson E, Lampert K, McCloskey J, et al. Risk factors for conduct disorder among Navajo Indian men and women. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 1999;34(4):180-9.
10. Aghababaei H, Hossein Khanzadeh AA, Hemati Alamdarloo G, Moradi A, Rezayi Dehnavi S. Prediction of Self Control Capacity based on Various Religious Orientations and Its Role in Crime Prevention. Criminal Law Research. 2011;2(2):19-36.
11. Mahdavinoor SMM, Teimouri M, Mollaei A, Mahdavinoor SH. Psychometric evaluation of the persian version of Existential Concern Questionnaire (ECQ) in Iranian general population: a cross-sectional study. BMC psychology. 2024;12(1):606.
12. Kelly PE, Polanin JR, Jang SJ, Johnson BR. Religion, delinquency, and drug use: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice Review. 2015;40(4):505-23.
13. Baier CJ, Wright BR. “If you love me, keep my commandments”: A meta-analysis of the effect of religion on crime. J Res Crime Delinq. 2001;38(1):3-21.
14. Gonçalves JPB, Lucchetti G, Maraldi EO, Fernandez PEL, Menezes PR, Vallada H. The role of religiosity and spirituality in interpersonal violence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Braz J Psychiatry. 2023;45(2):162-81.
15. Ramzy MI, Irfan PMM, Hussin Z. Religiosity as a mechanism to control delinquent behaviour of school students. Religions. 2021;12(10):823.
16. Bowlby J. AttachmentandLoss, Attachment. HogarthPress, London. 1969.
17. Motamedi A. Qualitative study of relationship with God in old age. Iranian Journal of Ageing. 2017;12(1):68-77.
18. Kirkpatrick LA, Shaver PR. Attachment theory and religion: Childhood attachments, religious beliefs, and conversion. J Sci Study Relig. 1990:315-34.
19. Kirkpatrick LA. An attachment-theory approach psychology of religion. Int J Psychol Relig. 1992;2(1):3-28.
20. Leman J, Hunter III W, Fergus T, Rowatt W. Secure attachment to God uniquely linked to psychological health in a national, random sample of American adults. Int J Psychol Relig. 2018;28(3):162-73.
21. Sim TN, Yow AS. God attachment, mother attachment, and father attachment in early and middle adolescence. J Relig Health. 2011;50(2):264-78.
22. Rajabzadeh Z, Raufi K, Rezai MM. Investigating the Relationship Between Attachment to God and Resilience with Meaningfulness in Student Life. 2019.
23. Ghobary Bonab B, Haddadi Kuhsar AA, Rashidi A, Javadi S. Relationship among image of God and attachment to God with mental health in parents of exceptional children. J Except Child. 2012;12(3):5-14.
24. Jordan KD, Niehus KL, Feinstein AM. Insecure attachment to God and interpersonal conflict. Religions. 2021;12(9):739.
25. Mohammadzadeh A. Investigating the relationships between death obsession, religious coping, acting on religious beliefs, and attachment to God. 2015.
26. SALMANIAN M, JOKARIAN AA, KOLAHI AA, ABADI A, KERAMATINIA AA, MOHAMMADI MR. Attachment to God and Forgiveness among Iranian Adolescents with Conduct Disorder at Tehran Reformatory. 2015.
27. Laird RD, Marks LD, Marrero MD. Religiosity, self-control, and antisocial behavior: Religiosity as a promotive and protective factor. J Appl Dev Psychol. 2011;32(2):78-85.
28. GHOBARI BB, HADADI KAA. MENTAL HEALTH, THE IMAGE OF GOD AND ATTACHMENT QUALITY AMONGST JUVENILE DELINQUENT. 2011.
29. HADADI KAA, GHOBARI BB. Image of God and Paranoid Ideation in College Students. 2011.
30. Koohsar AAH, Bonab BG. Relation between quality of image of God with anxiety and depression in college students. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2011;29:252-6.
31. Sinha JW, Cnaan RA, Gelles RJ. Adolescent risk behaviors and religion: findings from a national study. J Adolesc. 2007;30(2):231-49.
32. Gross E, Worth Jr RH. 902 D11 This very affordable chronology would be a useful resource in almost any library. The work is divided into broad chapters covering human origins, early civilizations, the classical age, the age of trade and. Reference Sources for Small and Medium-Sized Libraries. 2014:235.
33. Duwe G, Hallett M, Hays J, Jang SJ, Johnson BR. Bible college participation and prison misconduct: A preliminary analysis. J Offender Rehabil. 2015;54(5):371-90.
34. Sahare P, Kotnala A. Effectiveness of spiritual augmented psychotherapy on resilience and conscience on juvenile delinquents. Yoga Mimamsa. 2022;54(2):56-61.
35. Nakhaei HR, Ghanifar MH, Shabizadeh F. Comparing the effectiveness of spiritual therapy and self-compassion training on antisocial behavior of prisoners (Study case: Birjand prison). Journal of Socio-Cultural Studies of Khorasan. 2023;17(2):143-76.
36. Mohammadi MR, Salmanian M, Ghobari-Bonab B, Bolhari J. Spiritual Psychotherapy for Adolescents with Conduct Disorder: Designing and Piloting a Therapeutic Package. Iran J Psychiatry. 2017;12(4):258-64.
37. Salmanian M, Ghobari-Bonab B, Hooshyari Z, Mohammadi M-R. Effectiveness of spiritual psychotherapy on attachment to God among adolescents with conduct disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Psycholog Relig Spiritual. 2020;12(3):269.
38. Krippendorff K. Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology: Sage publications; 2018.
39. Bengtsson M. How to plan and perform a qualitative study using content analysis. NursingPlus open. 2016;2:8-14.
40. Hsieh HF, Shannon SE. Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qual Health Res. 2005;15(9):1277-88.
41. Salmanian M, Ghobari-Bonab B, Alavi SS, Jokarian AA, Mohammadi MR. Exploring the relationship difficulties of Iranian adolescents with conduct disorder: a qualitative content analysis. Int J Adolesc Med Health. 2016;29(3):/j/ijamh.2017.29.issue-3/ijamh-2015-0092/ijamh-2015-0092.xml.
42. Kaufman J, Birmaher B, Brent D, Rao U, Flynn C, Moreci P, et al. Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL): initial reliability and validity data. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(7):980-8.
43. Ghanizadeh A, Mohammadi MR, Yazdanshenas A. Psychometric properties of the Farsi translation of the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia-Present and Lifetime Version. BMC Psychiatry. 2006;6:10.
44. Polit DF, Beck CT. Nursing research: Principles and methods: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2004.
45. Walker DF, Hathaway WL. Spiritual interventions in child and adolescent psychotherapy: American Psychological Association; 2013.
46. Homayee R, Abedi A, Hosseini MS. An Analysis of the Juvenile and youth Felons' mental picture of God. Studies in Islam and Psychology. 2009;3(4):119-28.
47. Theule J, Germain SM, Cheung K, Hurl KE, Markel C. Conduct disorder/oppositional defiant disorder and attachment: A meta-analysis. J Dev Life Course Criminol. 2016;2(2):232-55.
48. Vergote A, Tamayo A, Pasquali L, Bonami M, Pattyn M-R, Custers A. Concept of God and parental images. J Sci Study Relig. 1969:79-87.
49. Sheeshabar A, As’adi. Relationship between parental images and the image of God in children aged 8 to 12 years: A developmental approach. Family Research. 2019 Jun 22;15(3):311-330. [Available from: https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_97760.html?lang=en ]
50. Fonagy P. Attachment in infancy and the problem of conduct disorders in adolescence: the role of reflective function. Personality and conduct disorders: Éditions GREUPP; 2000. p. 319-44.
51. Belavich TG, Pargament KI. The role of attachment in predicting spiritual coping with a loved one in surgery. J Adult Dev. 2002;9(1):13-29.
2. Ghandour RM, Sherman LJ, Vladutiu CJ, Ali MM, Lynch SE, Bitsko RH, et al. Prevalence and Treatment of Depression, Anxiety, and Conduct Problems in US Children. J Pediatr. 2019;206:256-67.e3.
3. Diagnostic A. Statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (ed.) Washington. DC: American Psychiatric Association. 2013.
4. Salmanian M, Asadian-Koohestani F, Mohammadi MR. A systematic review on the prevalence of conduct disorder in the Middle East. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2017;52(11):1337-43.
5. Mohammadi MR, Salmanian M, Keshavarzi Z. The Global Prevalence of Conduct Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Iran J Psychiatry. 2021;16(2):205-25.
6. Salvatore JE, Dick DM. Genetic influences on conduct disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2018;91:91-101.
7. Wesseldijk LW, Bartels M, Vink JM, van Beijsterveldt CEM, Ligthart L, Boomsma DI, et al. Genetic and environmental influences on conduct and antisocial personality problems in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2018;27(9):1123-32.
8. Boden JM, Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ. Risk factors for conduct disorder and oppositional/defiant disorder: evidence from a New Zealand birth cohort. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;49(11):1125-33.
9. Kunitz SJ, Gabriel KR, Levy JE, Henderson E, Lampert K, McCloskey J, et al. Risk factors for conduct disorder among Navajo Indian men and women. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 1999;34(4):180-9.
10. Aghababaei H, Hossein Khanzadeh AA, Hemati Alamdarloo G, Moradi A, Rezayi Dehnavi S. Prediction of Self Control Capacity based on Various Religious Orientations and Its Role in Crime Prevention. Criminal Law Research. 2011;2(2):19-36.
11. Mahdavinoor SMM, Teimouri M, Mollaei A, Mahdavinoor SH. Psychometric evaluation of the persian version of Existential Concern Questionnaire (ECQ) in Iranian general population: a cross-sectional study. BMC psychology. 2024;12(1):606.
12. Kelly PE, Polanin JR, Jang SJ, Johnson BR. Religion, delinquency, and drug use: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice Review. 2015;40(4):505-23.
13. Baier CJ, Wright BR. “If you love me, keep my commandments”: A meta-analysis of the effect of religion on crime. J Res Crime Delinq. 2001;38(1):3-21.
14. Gonçalves JPB, Lucchetti G, Maraldi EO, Fernandez PEL, Menezes PR, Vallada H. The role of religiosity and spirituality in interpersonal violence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Braz J Psychiatry. 2023;45(2):162-81.
15. Ramzy MI, Irfan PMM, Hussin Z. Religiosity as a mechanism to control delinquent behaviour of school students. Religions. 2021;12(10):823.
16. Bowlby J. AttachmentandLoss, Attachment. HogarthPress, London. 1969.
17. Motamedi A. Qualitative study of relationship with God in old age. Iranian Journal of Ageing. 2017;12(1):68-77.
18. Kirkpatrick LA, Shaver PR. Attachment theory and religion: Childhood attachments, religious beliefs, and conversion. J Sci Study Relig. 1990:315-34.
19. Kirkpatrick LA. An attachment-theory approach psychology of religion. Int J Psychol Relig. 1992;2(1):3-28.
20. Leman J, Hunter III W, Fergus T, Rowatt W. Secure attachment to God uniquely linked to psychological health in a national, random sample of American adults. Int J Psychol Relig. 2018;28(3):162-73.
21. Sim TN, Yow AS. God attachment, mother attachment, and father attachment in early and middle adolescence. J Relig Health. 2011;50(2):264-78.
22. Rajabzadeh Z, Raufi K, Rezai MM. Investigating the Relationship Between Attachment to God and Resilience with Meaningfulness in Student Life. 2019.
23. Ghobary Bonab B, Haddadi Kuhsar AA, Rashidi A, Javadi S. Relationship among image of God and attachment to God with mental health in parents of exceptional children. J Except Child. 2012;12(3):5-14.
24. Jordan KD, Niehus KL, Feinstein AM. Insecure attachment to God and interpersonal conflict. Religions. 2021;12(9):739.
25. Mohammadzadeh A. Investigating the relationships between death obsession, religious coping, acting on religious beliefs, and attachment to God. 2015.
26. SALMANIAN M, JOKARIAN AA, KOLAHI AA, ABADI A, KERAMATINIA AA, MOHAMMADI MR. Attachment to God and Forgiveness among Iranian Adolescents with Conduct Disorder at Tehran Reformatory. 2015.
27. Laird RD, Marks LD, Marrero MD. Religiosity, self-control, and antisocial behavior: Religiosity as a promotive and protective factor. J Appl Dev Psychol. 2011;32(2):78-85.
28. GHOBARI BB, HADADI KAA. MENTAL HEALTH, THE IMAGE OF GOD AND ATTACHMENT QUALITY AMONGST JUVENILE DELINQUENT. 2011.
29. HADADI KAA, GHOBARI BB. Image of God and Paranoid Ideation in College Students. 2011.
30. Koohsar AAH, Bonab BG. Relation between quality of image of God with anxiety and depression in college students. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2011;29:252-6.
31. Sinha JW, Cnaan RA, Gelles RJ. Adolescent risk behaviors and religion: findings from a national study. J Adolesc. 2007;30(2):231-49.
32. Gross E, Worth Jr RH. 902 D11 This very affordable chronology would be a useful resource in almost any library. The work is divided into broad chapters covering human origins, early civilizations, the classical age, the age of trade and. Reference Sources for Small and Medium-Sized Libraries. 2014:235.
33. Duwe G, Hallett M, Hays J, Jang SJ, Johnson BR. Bible college participation and prison misconduct: A preliminary analysis. J Offender Rehabil. 2015;54(5):371-90.
34. Sahare P, Kotnala A. Effectiveness of spiritual augmented psychotherapy on resilience and conscience on juvenile delinquents. Yoga Mimamsa. 2022;54(2):56-61.
35. Nakhaei HR, Ghanifar MH, Shabizadeh F. Comparing the effectiveness of spiritual therapy and self-compassion training on antisocial behavior of prisoners (Study case: Birjand prison). Journal of Socio-Cultural Studies of Khorasan. 2023;17(2):143-76.
36. Mohammadi MR, Salmanian M, Ghobari-Bonab B, Bolhari J. Spiritual Psychotherapy for Adolescents with Conduct Disorder: Designing and Piloting a Therapeutic Package. Iran J Psychiatry. 2017;12(4):258-64.
37. Salmanian M, Ghobari-Bonab B, Hooshyari Z, Mohammadi M-R. Effectiveness of spiritual psychotherapy on attachment to God among adolescents with conduct disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Psycholog Relig Spiritual. 2020;12(3):269.
38. Krippendorff K. Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology: Sage publications; 2018.
39. Bengtsson M. How to plan and perform a qualitative study using content analysis. NursingPlus open. 2016;2:8-14.
40. Hsieh HF, Shannon SE. Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qual Health Res. 2005;15(9):1277-88.
41. Salmanian M, Ghobari-Bonab B, Alavi SS, Jokarian AA, Mohammadi MR. Exploring the relationship difficulties of Iranian adolescents with conduct disorder: a qualitative content analysis. Int J Adolesc Med Health. 2016;29(3):/j/ijamh.2017.29.issue-3/ijamh-2015-0092/ijamh-2015-0092.xml.
42. Kaufman J, Birmaher B, Brent D, Rao U, Flynn C, Moreci P, et al. Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL): initial reliability and validity data. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36(7):980-8.
43. Ghanizadeh A, Mohammadi MR, Yazdanshenas A. Psychometric properties of the Farsi translation of the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia-Present and Lifetime Version. BMC Psychiatry. 2006;6:10.
44. Polit DF, Beck CT. Nursing research: Principles and methods: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2004.
45. Walker DF, Hathaway WL. Spiritual interventions in child and adolescent psychotherapy: American Psychological Association; 2013.
46. Homayee R, Abedi A, Hosseini MS. An Analysis of the Juvenile and youth Felons' mental picture of God. Studies in Islam and Psychology. 2009;3(4):119-28.
47. Theule J, Germain SM, Cheung K, Hurl KE, Markel C. Conduct disorder/oppositional defiant disorder and attachment: A meta-analysis. J Dev Life Course Criminol. 2016;2(2):232-55.
48. Vergote A, Tamayo A, Pasquali L, Bonami M, Pattyn M-R, Custers A. Concept of God and parental images. J Sci Study Relig. 1969:79-87.
49. Sheeshabar A, As’adi. Relationship between parental images and the image of God in children aged 8 to 12 years: A developmental approach. Family Research. 2019 Jun 22;15(3):311-330. [Available from: https://jfr.sbu.ac.ir/article_97760.html?lang=en ]
50. Fonagy P. Attachment in infancy and the problem of conduct disorders in adolescence: the role of reflective function. Personality and conduct disorders: Éditions GREUPP; 2000. p. 319-44.
51. Belavich TG, Pargament KI. The role of attachment in predicting spiritual coping with a loved one in surgery. J Adult Dev. 2002;9(1):13-29.
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How to Cite
1.
Salmanian M, Mohammadi MR, Mahdavinoor SMM. Investigation of Relationship with God among Adolescents with Conduct Disorder: A Qualitative Content Analysis. Iran J Psychiatry. 2025;:1-11.
