Psychological Aspects of Disaster
Abstract
Human beings have always experienced disasters. A disaster may be brief,but its psychological effects may last for many years. These psychological effects are increasingly well documented.Disasters affect not only those immediately involved, but also those whoknow the victims. This is perhaps particularly so when the victims arechildren. Commonly when adults hear news of disasters they ask first: What about the children? Of course, typically it is worse for the parents.In this article the definition and classification of disaster and the effects ofdisaster on survivors and their relatives will be discussed.
Quarantelli EL. “What is a Disaster? An Agent Specific or an All Disaster Spectrum Approach to Socio-Behavioral Aspects of Earthquakes?” In: Barclay GJ, Quarantelli EL, Tomazevic M, eds. Social and economic aspects of earthquakes. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University; 1982a. p. 453-478.
Perry S, Difede J, Musngi G, Frances AJ, Jacobsberg L. Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder after burn injury. Am J Psychiatry 1992; 149: 931-935.
Quarantelli EL. What is a disaster? The need for clarification in definition and conceptualization in research. In: Sowder BJ, Lystad, M, eds. Disaster and mental health: Contemporary perspectives and innovations in services to disaster victims. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health; 1986. p. 49-81.
Brown M, Goldin A. Collective behaviour: A review and reinterpretation of the literature. Pacific palisades, calif: Goodyear; 1973.
Dombrowsky W. Another step toward a social theory of disaster. Preliminary Papeer No. 70. Newark, Del: Disaster Research Center: University of Delaware; 1981.
Wesgate KN, O’Keefe, P. Some definitions of disaster. Bradford, Eng: University of Bradford 1976.
Saylor CF. Children and Disasters: Clinical and Research Issues. In: saylor CF, ed. Children and Disasters. Issues in Clinical Child Psychology Series. New York: Plenum; 1993.
Barton AH. Communities in Disaster: A Sociological Analysis of Collective Stress Situations. Garden City, NY: Doubleday; 1969.
Davis L, Siegel LJ. Posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents: a review and analysis. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 2000; 3: 135-154.
Sinclair ND. Horrific Traumata: A Pastoral Response to the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Haworth Press; 1993.
Yule W, Udwin O. Screening child survivors for post-traumatic stress disorders: experiences from the'Jupiter'sinking. Br J Clin Psychol 1991; 30: 131-138.
Yule W, Udwin O, Murdoch K. The ‘‘Jupiter’’sinking: Effects on children’s fears, depression and anxiety. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1990; 31: 1051–1061.
Yule W, Williams RM. Post-traumatic stress reactions in children. J Trauma Stress 1990; 3: 279-295.
Raphael B. When Disaster Strikes: A Handbook for the Caring Professions. Hutchinson; 1986.
Jones RT, Ribbe DP. Child, adolescent, and adult victims of residential fire. Psychosocial consequences. Behav Modif 1991; 15: 560- 580.
Mirzamani SM. Mothers’ Psychological Problems Following Disaster Affecting Their Children. In: Corales TA, ed. Focus on Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research. New York, USA: Nova Publishers Inc; 2005. p. 95- 121
Mirzamani SM, Mohammadi MR, Besharat MA. PTSD symptoms of children following the occurrence of Tehran city park disaster. J Psychol 2006; 140: 181-186.
Yule W, Gold A. Wise before the event: planning with schools to help child survivors of catastrophes. In: Forrest G, ed. Trauma and crisis management. ACPP day meeting; 1993. p. 26-34.
Yule W. Technology-Related disasters. In: Saylor CF, ed. Children and disasters. New York NY:: Plenum Press.; 1993. p. 105-122.
Yule W, Williams RM. Post-traumatic stress reactions in children. J Trauma Stress 1990; 3: 279-295.
Yule W. Posttraumatic stress disorder in child survivors of shipping disasters: the sinking of the “Jupiter”. Psychother Psychosom 1992; 57: 200-205.
Martini D, Ryan C, Nakayama D, Ramenofsky M. Psychiatric Sequelae after Traumatic Injury: The Pittsburgh Regatta Accident. Case Study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1990; 29: 70-75.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
Tomb DA. The phenomenology of post- traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1994; 17: 237-250.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1968.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd Ed). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1980.
Pitman RK, Roger, K. Biological Finding in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Implications for DSM-IV Classification. In: Davidson JRT, Foa EB, eds. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Dsm- IV and Beyond. Washington, D.C: American Psychiatric Pub, Inc; 1993. p. 173-188.
Brett EA, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. DSM-III-R criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1988; 145: 1232-1236.
March JS. What constitutes a stressor? The "Criterion A" issue. In: Davidson JRT, Foa E B, eds. Posttraumatic stress disorder: DSM-IV and beyond. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1993. p. 37-54.
Solomon SD, Canino GJ. Appropriateness of DSM-III-R criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder. Compr Psychiatry 1990; 31: 227-237.
Bates FL, Fogelman CW, Partenton VJ. The social and psychological consequences of a natural disaster: A longitudinal study of Hurricane Audrey (Disaster Study No. 18). Washington, D.C: National Academy of Sciences-Natural Research Council; 1963.
Blaufarb H, Levine J. Crisis Intervention in an Earthquake. Soc Work 1972; 17: 16-39.
Bolin RC. Long-Term Family Recovery from Disaster. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado, Institute of Behavioral Science; 1982.
Milne G. Cyclone tracy: I some consequences of the evacuation for adult victims. Aust Psychol 1977; 12: 39-54.
Mirzamani SM, Mohammadi MR, Besharat MA. [Application of the PTSD symptoms scale (PSS) for Iranian PTSD]. Medical Journal of the Islamic Republic of Iran 2006; 19: 345-348.
Taylor JB, Zurcher L, William H. A Community Responds to Disaster. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press; 1970.
Taylor V. Good news about disaster. Psychol Today 1977; 93: 94-96.
Greenson RR, Mintz T. California earthquake 1971: Some psychoanalytic observations. Int J Psychoanal Psychother 1972; 1: 7-23.
Houts PS, Miller RW, Tokuhata G, Ham KS. Health-Related Behavioral Impact of the Three Mile Island Nuclear Incident. Part I. Report submitted to the TMI Advisory Panel on Health Research Studies of the Pennysylvania Department of Health. Hershey, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University, College of medicine; 1980.
Leivesley S. Toowoomba: Victims and helpers in an Austrlian hail strom disaster. Disasters 1977; 1: 205-216.
Parker G. Psychological disturbance in Darwin evacuees following cyclone Tracy. Med J Aust 1975; 1: 650-652.
Raphael B. The Granville train disaster: psychological needs and their management. Med J Aust 1977; 1: 303-305.
Ollendick DG, Hoffmann M. Assessment of psychological reactions in disaster victims. J Community Psychol 1982; 10: 157-167.
Taylor V, Alexander Ross G, Quarantelli EL. Delivery of mental health services in disasters: The Xenia tornado and some implications, Disaster Research Center Book and Monograph Series No. 11. Columbus, OH: Disaster Research Center, the Ohio State University 1976.
Hocking F. Human reactions to extreme environmental stress. Med J Aust 1965; 2: 477-483.
Knaus RL. Crisis intervention in a disaster area: the Pennsylvania flood in Wilkes-Barre. J Am Osteopath Assoc 1975; 75: 297-301.
Gleser GC, Green, BL, Winget, CL. Prolonged Psychosocial Effects of Disaster: A Study of Buffalo Creek. New York: Academic Press; 1981.
Green BL. Assessing levels of psychological impairment following disaster: consideration of actual and methodological dimensions. J Nerv Ment Dis 1982; 170: 544-552.
Perry RW, Lindell MK. The psychological consequences of natural disaster: A review of research on American communities. Mass Emergencies 1978; 3: 105-115.
Dohrenwend BS, Dohrenwend BP. Some issues in research on stressful life events. J Nerv Ment Dis 1978; 166: 7-15.
Lifton RJ, Olson E. The human meaning of total disaster. The Buffalo Creek experience. Psychiatry 1976; 39: 1-18.
Erikson KT. Everything in Its Path: Destruction of Community in the Buffalo Creek Flood. New York: Simon and Schuster; 1976.
Foy DW. Treating PTSD: Cognitive-Behavioral Strategies. New York: Guilford Press; 1992.
Finch AJ, Daugherty TK. Issues in the assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder in children. In: Saylor CF, ed. Children and Disasters: Issues in Clinical Child Psychology. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1993. p. 45-66.
Malloy PF, Fairbank JA, Keane TM. Validation of a multimethod assessment of posttraumatic stress disorders in Vietnam veterans. J Consult Clin Psychol 1983; 51: 488–494.
Blanchard EB, Kolb LC, Gerardi RJ, Ryan P. Cardiac response to relevant stimuli as an adjunctive tool for diagnosing post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. Behav Ther 1986; 17: 592-606.
Janoff-Bulman R. The aftermath of victimization: Rebuilding shattered assumptions. In: Figley DR, ed. Trauma and its wake: The study and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. New York: Brunner/Mazel; 1985. p. 15–35.
Parker J, Watts H, Allsopp MR. Post-traumatic stress symptoms in children and parents following a school-based fatality. Child Care Health Dev 1995; 21: 183-189.
Bolton D, O'Ryan D, Udwin O, Boyle S, Yule W. The long-term psychological effects of a disaster experienced in adolescence II: General psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2000; 41: 513-523.
Mirzamani M, Bolton D. Mothers' psychological adjustment following disaster affecting their children. J Psychol 2003; 137: 54-62.
Mirzamani SM, Bolton D. PTSD symptoms of mothers following occurrence of a disaster affecting their children. Psychol Rep 2002; 90: 431-438.
Yule W, Bolton D, Udwin O, Boyle S, O'Ryan D, Nurrish J. The Long-term Psychological Effects of a Disaster Experienced in Adolescence: I: The Incidence and Course of PTSD. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2000; 41: 503-511.
Sack WH, Angell RH, Kinzie JD, Rath B. The psychiatric effects of massive trauma on Cambodian children: II. The family, the home and the school. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1986; 25: 377-383.
Green BL. Evaluating the effects of disasters. Psychol Assess 1991; 3: 538-546.
Resnick HS, Kilpatrick DG, Lipovsky JA. Assessment of rape-related posttraumatic stress disorder: stressor and symptom dimensions. Psychol Assess 1991; 3: 561-572.
Sutker PB, Uddo-Crane M, Allain AN. Clinical and research assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder: a conceptual overview. Psychol Assess 1991; 3: 520-530.
Keane TM, Wolfe J, Taylor KL. Post-traumatic stress disorder: evidence for diagnostic validity and methods of psychological assessment. J Clin Psychol 1987; 43: 32-43.
Wilson JP. The need for an integrative theory of post-traumatic stress disorder. In: Williams MB, Sommer, JF, ed. Handbook of post- traumatic therapy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press; 1994. p.
Blake DD, Weathers FW, Nagy LM, Kaloupek DG, Klauminzer G, Charney DS, et al. A clinician rating scale for assessing current and lifetime PTSD: The CAPS-1. Behavior Therapist 1990; 13: 187-188.
Solomon Z, Benbenishty R, Neria Y, Abramowitz M, Ginzburg K, Ohry A. Assessment of PTSD: validation of the revised PTSD Inventory. Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci 1993; 30: 110-115.
Watson CG, Juba MP, Manifold V, Kucala T, Anderson PE. The PTSD interview: rationale, description, reliability, and concurrent validity of a DSM-III-based technique. J Clin Psychol 1991; 47: 179-188.
Davidson J, Lipper S, Kilts CD, Mahorney S, Hammett E. Platelet MAO activity in posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1985; 142: 1341-1343.
Butcher JN, Dahlstrom WG, Graham JR, Tellegen A, Kaemmer B. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2): Manual for administration and scoring. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press; 1989.
Derogatis LR, Cleary PA. Confirmation of the dimensional structure of the SCL-90: A study in construct validation. J Clin Psychol 1977; 33: 981-989.
Horowitz MJ. Stress Response Syndromes. New York: Jason Aronson; 1976.
Weisenberg M, Solomon Z, Schwarzwald J, Mikulincer M. Assessing the Severity of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Relation between Dichotomous and Continuous Measures. J Consult Clin Psychol 1987; 55: 432-434.
Schwarzwald J. Validation of the Impact of Event Scale for Psychological Sequelae of Combat. J Consult Clin Psychol 1987; 55: 251- 256.
Zilberg NJ. Impact of Event Scale: A Cross- Validation Study and Some Empirical Evidence Supporting a Conceptual Model of Stress Response Syndromes. J Consult Clin Psychol 1982; 50: 407-413.
Fairbank JA, Keane TM, Malloy PF. Some preliminary data on the psychological characteristics of Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorders. J Consult Clin Psychol 1983; 51: 912-919.
Keane TM, Malloy PF, Fairbank JA. Empirical development of an MMPI subscale for the assessment of combat-related posttraumatic
stress disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol 1984; 52: 888-891.
Penk WE, Robinowitz R, Roberts WR, Patterson ET, Dolan MP, Atkins HG. Adjustment Differences among Male Substance Abusers Varying in Degree of Combat Experience in Vietnam. J Consult Clin Psychol 1981; 49: 426-437.
Foy DW. Etiology of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Vietnam Veterans: Analysis of Premilitary, Military, and Combat Exposure Influences. J Consult Clin Psychol 1984; 52: 79-87.
Hyer L, O'Leary WC, Saucer RT, Blount J, Harrison WR, Boudewyns PA. Inpatient diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol 1986; 54: 698-702.
Blanchard EB, Wittrock D, Kolb LC, Gerardi RJ. Cross-validation of a minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI) subscale for the assessment of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 1988; 10: 33-38.
Dohrenwend BS, Askenasy AR, Krasnoff L, Dohrenwend BP. Exemplification of a Method for Scaling Life Events: The PERI Life Events Scale. J Health Soc Behav 1978; 19: 205-229.
Hyer L, Woods M, Harrison WR, Boudewyns P, O'Leary WC. MMPI F-K index among hospitalized Vietnam veterans. J Clin Psychol 1989; 45: 250-254.
Mirzamani SM. Application of the F and K scales of MMPI to a group of PTSD out- patients [Unpublished M.Sc dissertation]. Tehran: Iran University of Medical Sciences; 1991.
Munley PH, Bains DS, Bloem WD. F Scale elevation and PTSD MMPI profiles. Psychol Rep 1993; 73: 363-370.
Munley PH, Bains DS, Frazee J, Schwartz LT. Inpatient PTSD treatment: A study of pretreatment measures, treatment dropout, and therapist ratings of response to treatment. J Trauma Stress 1994; 7: 319-325.
Neal LA, Busuttil W, Rollins J, Herepath R, Strike P, Turnbull G. Convergent validity of measures of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in a mixed military and civilian population. J Trauma Stress 1994; 7: 447-455.
Query WT. Applying Posttraumatic Stress Disorder MMPI Subscale to World War II POW Veterans. J Clin Psychol 1986; 42: 315-317.
Talbert FS, Albrecht NN, Albrecht JW, Boudewyns PA, Hyer LA, Touze JH, et al. MMPI profiles in PTSD as a function of comorbidity. J Clin Psychol 1994; 50: 529-537.
Watson CG, Kucala T, Manifold V. A cross- validation of the Keane and Penk MMPI scales as measures of post-traumatic stress disorder.
J Clin Psychol 1986; 42: 727-732.
Drabek TE, Key WM. Conquering Disaster: Family Recovery and Long-Term Consequences. New York: Irvington Publishers; 1984.
Litz BT, Penk WE, Walsh S, Hyer L, Blake DD, Marx B, et al. Similarities and differences between MMPI and MMPI-2 applications to the assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Pers Assess 1991; 57: 238–253.
Ward LC. MMPI-2 assessment of positive attributes: a methodological note. J Pers Assess 1994; 62: 559-561.
Albrecht NN, Talbert FS, Albrecht JW, Boudewyns PA, Hyer LA, Touze J, et al. A comparison of MMPI and MMPI-2 in PTSD assessment. J Clin Psychol 1994; 50: 578- 585.
Keane TM, Caddell JM, Taylor KL. Mississippi Scale for Combat-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: three studies in reliability and validity. J Consult Clin Psychol 1988; 56: 85- 90.
Foa EB, Riggs DS, Dancu CV, Rothbaum BO. Reliability and validity of a brief instrument for assessing post-traumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress 1993; 6: 459-473.
Stieglitz RD, Frommberger U, Foa EB, Berger M, Pss PSS, Stieglitz P, et al. Evaluation of the German Version of the PTSD Symptom Scale (PSS). Psychopathology 2001; 34: 128-133.
Wohlfarth TD, van den Brink W, Winkel FW, ter Smitten M. Screening for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: an evaluation of two self- report scales among crime victims. Psychol Assess 2003; 15: 101-109.
Coffey SF, Dansky BS, Falsetti SA, Saladin ME, Brady KT. Screening for PTSD in a substance abuse sample: psychometric properties of a modified version of the PTSD Symptom Scale Self-Report. Posttraumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress 1998; 11: 393-399.
Blanchard EB, Kolb LC, Pallmeyer TP, Gerardi RJ. The development of a psychophysiological assessment procedure for post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. Psychiatr Q 1982; 54: 220-229.
McFall ME, Murburg MM, Ko GN, Veith RC. Autonomic responses to stress in Vietnam combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 1990; 27: 1165-1175.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 2 No 1 (2007) | |
| Section | Articles | |
| Keywords | ||
| Disaster Post-traumatic stress disorder Mental health | ||
| Rights and permissions | |
|
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
