Risk Factors Associated with Cyberbullying, Cybervictimization, and Cyberbullying-Victimization in Iran’s High School Students
Abstract
Objective: This study aimed at finding the risk and protective factors of cyberbullying.
Method: A total of 425 high school students (199 boys and 226 girls) were selected using a cluster randomized procedure. The risk and protective factors included gender, internet use, self-esteem, dark triad traits (Machiavellianism, narcissism and psychopathy), school bullying perpetration, school bullying victimization, interparental conflict, and school climate.
Results: The results of multinomial logistic regression showed that being male, school bullying perpetration, and school bullying victimization can significantly increase the chances of being a cyberbully-victim and spending one hour or less on the internet can significantly decrease the chances of being a cyberbully-victim.
Conclusion: This study provides important implications for any prevention and intervention programs for cyberbullying, which must consider the roles of traditional bullying, gender differences, and internet use in cyberbullying behavior.
1. Juvonen J, Gross EF. Extending the school grounds?--Bullying experiences in cyberspace. J Sch Health. 2008;78(9):496-505.
2. Smith PK, Mahdavi J, Carvalho M, Fisher S, Russell S, Tippett N. Cyberbullying: its nature and impact in secondary school pupils. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2008;49(4):376-85.
3. Walden LM, Beran TN. Attachment quality and bullying behavior in school-aged youth. Can. J. Sch. Psychol. 2010;25(1):5-18.
4. Lee C, Shin N. Prevalence of cyberbullying and predictors of cyberbullying perpetration among Korean adolescents. Comput. Hum. Behav. 2017 Mar 1;68:352-8.
5. Sourander A, Brunstein Klomek A, Ikonen M, Lindroos J, Luntamo T, Koskelainen M, et al. Psychosocial risk factors associated with cyberbullying among adolescents: a population-based study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67(7):720-8.
6. Arabshahi F, Fakhri A, Serami M, Ketabi M, Golestaneh Z, Akbari H, et al. An investigation of the bullying through social networks among junior high school students: an experience in Kashan, Iran. Int. J. Sch. Health. 2018 Jan 1;5(1):1-6.
7. Arıcak OT. Psychiatric symptomatology as a predictor of cyberbullying among university students. Eurasian J. Educ. Res. 2009 Jan 1(34): 167-184.
8. Cappadocia MC, Craig WM, Pepler D. Cyberbullying: Prevalence, stability, and risk factors during adolescence. Can. J. Sch. Psychol. 2013;28(2):171-92.
9. Chan SF, La Greca AM, editors. Cyber victimization and aggression: Are they linked with adolescent smoking and drinking? Child Youth Care Forum; 2016 Feb 1 (Vol. 45, No. 1, pp. 47-63).
10. Bayraktar F, Machackova H, Dedkova L, Cerna A, Sevcikova A. Cyberbullying: The Discriminant Factors Among Cyberbullies, Cybervictims, and Cyberbully-Victims in a Czech Adolescent Sample. J. Interpers. Violence. 2015;30(18)3:192-216.
11. Álvarez-García D, Núñez Pérez JC, Dobarro González A, Rodríguez Pérez C. Risk factors associated with cybervictimization in adolescence. Int J Clin Health Psychol. 2015;15(3):226-35.
12. Palermiti AL, Servidio R, Bartolo MG, Costabile A. Cyberbullying and self-esteem: An Italian study. Comput Hum Behav. 2017;69:136-41.
13. Festl R, Scharkow M, Quandt T. Peer Influence, Internet use and Cyberbullying: A Comparison of Different Context Effects among German Adolescents. J Child Media. 2013;7(4):446-62.
14. Balakrishnan V. Cyberbullying among young adults in Malaysia: The roles of gender, age and Internet frequency. Comput Hum Behav. 2015;46:149-57.
15. Kowalski R, Limber SP, McCord A. A developmental approach to cyberbullying: Prevalence and protective factors. Aggress Violent Behav. 2019 Mar 1;45:20-32.
16. Savoldi F, Ferraz de Abreu P. Bullying, cyberbullying and Internet usage among young people in post-conflict Belfast. Cogent Soc Sci. 2016;2(1):1132985.
17. Patchin JW, Hinduja S. Cyberbullying and self-esteem. J Sch Health. 2010;80(12):614-21; quiz 22-4.
18. Brewer G, Kerslake J. Cyberbullying, self-esteem, empathy and loneliness. Comput hum behav. 2015;48:255-60.
19. Rauthmann JF. The Dark Triad and interpersonal perception: Similarities and differences in the social consequences of narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Soc Psychol Personal Sci. 2012;3(4):487-96.
20. Gibb ZG, Devereux PG. Who does that anyway? Predictors and personality correlates of cyberbullying in college. Comput Hum Behav. 2014;38:8-16.
21. Paulhus DL, Williams KM. The dark triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. J res pers. 2002;36(6):556-63.
22. Baughman HM, Dearing S, Giammarco E, Vernon PA. Relationships between bullying behaviours and the Dark Triad: A study with adults. Pers Individ Differ. 2012;52(5):571-5.
23. Fanti KA, Frick PJ, Georgiou S. Linking callous-unemotional traits to instrumental and non-instrumental forms of aggression. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2009;31(4):285.
24. Goodboy AK, Martin MM. The personality profile of a cyberbully: Examining the Dark Triad. Comput Hum Behav. 2015;49:1-4.
25. Kircaburun K, Jonason PK, Griffiths MD. The Dark Tetrad traits and problematic social media use: The mediating role of cyberbullying and cyberstalking. Pers Individ Differ. 2018;135:264-9.
26. Raskauskas J, Stoltz AD. Involvement in traditional and electronic bullying among adolescents. Dev Psychol. 2007;43(3):564-75.
27. Kowalski RM, Morgan CA, Limber SP. Traditional bullying as a potential warning sign of cyberbullying. Sch Psychol Int. 2012;33(5):505-19.
28. Baldry AC, Farrington DP, Sorrentino A. “Am I at risk of cyberbullying”? A narrative review and conceptual framework for research on risk of cyberbullying and cybervictimization: The risk and needs assessment approach. Aggress Violent Behav. 2015;23:36-51.
29. Dehue F, Bolman C, Völlink T. Cyberbullying: youngsters' experiences and parental perception. Cyberpsychol Behav. 2008;11(2):217-23.
30. Cassidy W, Jackson M, Brown KN. Sticks and stones can break my bones, but how can pixels hurt me? Students’ experiences with cyber-bullying. Sch psychol int. 2009;30(4):383-402.
31. Yang SJ, Stewart R, Kim JM, Kim SW, Shin IS, Dewey ME, et al. Differences in predictors of traditional and cyber-bullying: a 2-year longitudinal study in Korean school children. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2013;22(5):309-18.
32. Waasdorp TE, Bradshaw CP. The overlap between cyberbullying and traditional bullying. J Adolesc Health. 2015;56(5):483-8.
33. Tanrikulu I, Campbell M. Correlates of traditional bullying and cyberbullying perpetration among Australian students. Child youth serv rev. 2015;55:138-46.
34. Kokkinos CM, Antoniadou N, Dalara E, Koufogazou A, Papatziki A. Cyber-bullying, personality and coping among pre-adolescents. Int J Cyber Behav, Psychol Learn. 2013;3(4):55-69.
35. Buelga S, Martínez–Ferrer B, Cava MJ. Differences in family climate and family communication among cyberbullies, cybervictims, and cyber bully–victims in adolescents. Comput Hum Behav. 2017;76:164-73.
36. Hemphill SA, Heerde JA. Adolescent predictors of young adult cyberbullying perpetration and victimization among Australian youth. J Adolesc Health. 2014;55(4):580-7.
37. Casas JA, Del Rey R, Ortega-Ruiz R. Bullying and cyberbullying: Convergent and divergent predictor variables. Comput Hum Behav. 2013;29(3):580-7.
38. Williams KR, Guerra NG. Prevalence and predictors of internet bullying. J Adolesc Health. 2007;41(6 Suppl 1):S14-21.
39. Kowalski RM, Giumetti GW, Schroeder AN, Lattanner MR. Bullying in the digital age: a critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychol Bull. 2014;140(4):1073-137.
40. Lam LT, Li Y. The validation of the E-Victimisation Scale (E-VS) and the E-Bullying Scale (E-BS) for adolescents. Comput Hum Behav. 2013;29(1):3-7.
41. Lam LT, Cheng Z, Liu X. Violent online games exposure and cyberbullying/victimization among adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2013;16(3):159-65.
42. Hajlo N, GhasemiNejad MA, Jangi S, Hossain SA. Relationship between the dark triad personality and cyber bullying in student internet users. J Kermanshah Univ Med Sci. 2015;19(1):24-31.
43. Rosenberg M. Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton: Princeton university press; 2015.
44. Shapurian R, Hojat M, Nayerahmadi H. Psychometric characteristics and dimensionality of a Persian version of Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale. Percept Mot Skills. 1987;65(1):27-34.
45. AMIRI S, YAGHOOBI A. EVALUATION OF THE PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES SCALE OF DARK TRIAD OF PERSONALITY. RES CLIN PSYCHOL COUNS. 2016 May 21;6(1):77-97
46. Olweus D. Revised Olweus bully/victim questionnaire. Br J Educ Psychol. 1996.
47. REZAPOUR M, SOORI H, KHODAKARIM S. TESTING PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF THE PERPETRATION OF BULLYING AND VICTIMIZATION SCALES WITH OLWEUS BULLYING QUESTIONNAIRE IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS. J SAF PROMOT INJ PREV. 2013;1(4):212-21.
48. Grych JH, Seid M, Fincham FD. Assessing marital conflict from the child's perspective: the children's perception of interparental conflict scale. Child Dev. 1992;63(3):558-72.
49. An Investigation in to the causal model of parental care and inter parental conflict with romantic intimacy and mediating role of inter parental conflict perception and avoidance attachment. J Appl Couns, 2016; 5(2): 57-78.
50. Zamani SD, Taremian F, Motamed N. Relationship of personality factors, emotion regulation, antisocial cognition, mental health and life fields on juvenile delinquency behaviors. J Adv Med Biomed Res. 2018;26(115):92-106.
51. Agnew R, White HR. An empirical test of general strain theory. Criminol. 1992;30(4):475-500.
52. O’Moore M, Kirkham C. Self-esteem and its relationship to bullying behaviour. Aggress Behav. 2001;27(4):269-83.
53. Zsila Á, Urbán R, Griffiths MD, Demetrovics Z. Gender differences in the association between cyberbullying victimization and perpetration: The role of anger rumination and traditional bullying experiences. Int J Ment Health Addict. 2019 Oct;17(5):1252-67.
54. Agatston PW, Kowalski R, Limber S. Students' perspectives on cyber bullying. J Adolesc Health. 2007;41(6 Suppl 1):S59-60.
55. Marret MJ, Choo WY. Factors associated with online victimisation among Malaysian adolescents who use social networking sites: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2017;7(6):e014959.
56. Zhou Z, Tang H, Tian Y, Wei H, Zhang F, Morrison CM. Cyberbullying and its risk factors among Chinese high school students. Sch Psychol Int. 2013;34(6):630-47.
2. Smith PK, Mahdavi J, Carvalho M, Fisher S, Russell S, Tippett N. Cyberbullying: its nature and impact in secondary school pupils. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2008;49(4):376-85.
3. Walden LM, Beran TN. Attachment quality and bullying behavior in school-aged youth. Can. J. Sch. Psychol. 2010;25(1):5-18.
4. Lee C, Shin N. Prevalence of cyberbullying and predictors of cyberbullying perpetration among Korean adolescents. Comput. Hum. Behav. 2017 Mar 1;68:352-8.
5. Sourander A, Brunstein Klomek A, Ikonen M, Lindroos J, Luntamo T, Koskelainen M, et al. Psychosocial risk factors associated with cyberbullying among adolescents: a population-based study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67(7):720-8.
6. Arabshahi F, Fakhri A, Serami M, Ketabi M, Golestaneh Z, Akbari H, et al. An investigation of the bullying through social networks among junior high school students: an experience in Kashan, Iran. Int. J. Sch. Health. 2018 Jan 1;5(1):1-6.
7. Arıcak OT. Psychiatric symptomatology as a predictor of cyberbullying among university students. Eurasian J. Educ. Res. 2009 Jan 1(34): 167-184.
8. Cappadocia MC, Craig WM, Pepler D. Cyberbullying: Prevalence, stability, and risk factors during adolescence. Can. J. Sch. Psychol. 2013;28(2):171-92.
9. Chan SF, La Greca AM, editors. Cyber victimization and aggression: Are they linked with adolescent smoking and drinking? Child Youth Care Forum; 2016 Feb 1 (Vol. 45, No. 1, pp. 47-63).
10. Bayraktar F, Machackova H, Dedkova L, Cerna A, Sevcikova A. Cyberbullying: The Discriminant Factors Among Cyberbullies, Cybervictims, and Cyberbully-Victims in a Czech Adolescent Sample. J. Interpers. Violence. 2015;30(18)3:192-216.
11. Álvarez-García D, Núñez Pérez JC, Dobarro González A, Rodríguez Pérez C. Risk factors associated with cybervictimization in adolescence. Int J Clin Health Psychol. 2015;15(3):226-35.
12. Palermiti AL, Servidio R, Bartolo MG, Costabile A. Cyberbullying and self-esteem: An Italian study. Comput Hum Behav. 2017;69:136-41.
13. Festl R, Scharkow M, Quandt T. Peer Influence, Internet use and Cyberbullying: A Comparison of Different Context Effects among German Adolescents. J Child Media. 2013;7(4):446-62.
14. Balakrishnan V. Cyberbullying among young adults in Malaysia: The roles of gender, age and Internet frequency. Comput Hum Behav. 2015;46:149-57.
15. Kowalski R, Limber SP, McCord A. A developmental approach to cyberbullying: Prevalence and protective factors. Aggress Violent Behav. 2019 Mar 1;45:20-32.
16. Savoldi F, Ferraz de Abreu P. Bullying, cyberbullying and Internet usage among young people in post-conflict Belfast. Cogent Soc Sci. 2016;2(1):1132985.
17. Patchin JW, Hinduja S. Cyberbullying and self-esteem. J Sch Health. 2010;80(12):614-21; quiz 22-4.
18. Brewer G, Kerslake J. Cyberbullying, self-esteem, empathy and loneliness. Comput hum behav. 2015;48:255-60.
19. Rauthmann JF. The Dark Triad and interpersonal perception: Similarities and differences in the social consequences of narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Soc Psychol Personal Sci. 2012;3(4):487-96.
20. Gibb ZG, Devereux PG. Who does that anyway? Predictors and personality correlates of cyberbullying in college. Comput Hum Behav. 2014;38:8-16.
21. Paulhus DL, Williams KM. The dark triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. J res pers. 2002;36(6):556-63.
22. Baughman HM, Dearing S, Giammarco E, Vernon PA. Relationships between bullying behaviours and the Dark Triad: A study with adults. Pers Individ Differ. 2012;52(5):571-5.
23. Fanti KA, Frick PJ, Georgiou S. Linking callous-unemotional traits to instrumental and non-instrumental forms of aggression. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2009;31(4):285.
24. Goodboy AK, Martin MM. The personality profile of a cyberbully: Examining the Dark Triad. Comput Hum Behav. 2015;49:1-4.
25. Kircaburun K, Jonason PK, Griffiths MD. The Dark Tetrad traits and problematic social media use: The mediating role of cyberbullying and cyberstalking. Pers Individ Differ. 2018;135:264-9.
26. Raskauskas J, Stoltz AD. Involvement in traditional and electronic bullying among adolescents. Dev Psychol. 2007;43(3):564-75.
27. Kowalski RM, Morgan CA, Limber SP. Traditional bullying as a potential warning sign of cyberbullying. Sch Psychol Int. 2012;33(5):505-19.
28. Baldry AC, Farrington DP, Sorrentino A. “Am I at risk of cyberbullying”? A narrative review and conceptual framework for research on risk of cyberbullying and cybervictimization: The risk and needs assessment approach. Aggress Violent Behav. 2015;23:36-51.
29. Dehue F, Bolman C, Völlink T. Cyberbullying: youngsters' experiences and parental perception. Cyberpsychol Behav. 2008;11(2):217-23.
30. Cassidy W, Jackson M, Brown KN. Sticks and stones can break my bones, but how can pixels hurt me? Students’ experiences with cyber-bullying. Sch psychol int. 2009;30(4):383-402.
31. Yang SJ, Stewart R, Kim JM, Kim SW, Shin IS, Dewey ME, et al. Differences in predictors of traditional and cyber-bullying: a 2-year longitudinal study in Korean school children. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2013;22(5):309-18.
32. Waasdorp TE, Bradshaw CP. The overlap between cyberbullying and traditional bullying. J Adolesc Health. 2015;56(5):483-8.
33. Tanrikulu I, Campbell M. Correlates of traditional bullying and cyberbullying perpetration among Australian students. Child youth serv rev. 2015;55:138-46.
34. Kokkinos CM, Antoniadou N, Dalara E, Koufogazou A, Papatziki A. Cyber-bullying, personality and coping among pre-adolescents. Int J Cyber Behav, Psychol Learn. 2013;3(4):55-69.
35. Buelga S, Martínez–Ferrer B, Cava MJ. Differences in family climate and family communication among cyberbullies, cybervictims, and cyber bully–victims in adolescents. Comput Hum Behav. 2017;76:164-73.
36. Hemphill SA, Heerde JA. Adolescent predictors of young adult cyberbullying perpetration and victimization among Australian youth. J Adolesc Health. 2014;55(4):580-7.
37. Casas JA, Del Rey R, Ortega-Ruiz R. Bullying and cyberbullying: Convergent and divergent predictor variables. Comput Hum Behav. 2013;29(3):580-7.
38. Williams KR, Guerra NG. Prevalence and predictors of internet bullying. J Adolesc Health. 2007;41(6 Suppl 1):S14-21.
39. Kowalski RM, Giumetti GW, Schroeder AN, Lattanner MR. Bullying in the digital age: a critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychol Bull. 2014;140(4):1073-137.
40. Lam LT, Li Y. The validation of the E-Victimisation Scale (E-VS) and the E-Bullying Scale (E-BS) for adolescents. Comput Hum Behav. 2013;29(1):3-7.
41. Lam LT, Cheng Z, Liu X. Violent online games exposure and cyberbullying/victimization among adolescents. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2013;16(3):159-65.
42. Hajlo N, GhasemiNejad MA, Jangi S, Hossain SA. Relationship between the dark triad personality and cyber bullying in student internet users. J Kermanshah Univ Med Sci. 2015;19(1):24-31.
43. Rosenberg M. Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton: Princeton university press; 2015.
44. Shapurian R, Hojat M, Nayerahmadi H. Psychometric characteristics and dimensionality of a Persian version of Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale. Percept Mot Skills. 1987;65(1):27-34.
45. AMIRI S, YAGHOOBI A. EVALUATION OF THE PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES SCALE OF DARK TRIAD OF PERSONALITY. RES CLIN PSYCHOL COUNS. 2016 May 21;6(1):77-97
46. Olweus D. Revised Olweus bully/victim questionnaire. Br J Educ Psychol. 1996.
47. REZAPOUR M, SOORI H, KHODAKARIM S. TESTING PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF THE PERPETRATION OF BULLYING AND VICTIMIZATION SCALES WITH OLWEUS BULLYING QUESTIONNAIRE IN MIDDLE SCHOOLS. J SAF PROMOT INJ PREV. 2013;1(4):212-21.
48. Grych JH, Seid M, Fincham FD. Assessing marital conflict from the child's perspective: the children's perception of interparental conflict scale. Child Dev. 1992;63(3):558-72.
49. An Investigation in to the causal model of parental care and inter parental conflict with romantic intimacy and mediating role of inter parental conflict perception and avoidance attachment. J Appl Couns, 2016; 5(2): 57-78.
50. Zamani SD, Taremian F, Motamed N. Relationship of personality factors, emotion regulation, antisocial cognition, mental health and life fields on juvenile delinquency behaviors. J Adv Med Biomed Res. 2018;26(115):92-106.
51. Agnew R, White HR. An empirical test of general strain theory. Criminol. 1992;30(4):475-500.
52. O’Moore M, Kirkham C. Self-esteem and its relationship to bullying behaviour. Aggress Behav. 2001;27(4):269-83.
53. Zsila Á, Urbán R, Griffiths MD, Demetrovics Z. Gender differences in the association between cyberbullying victimization and perpetration: The role of anger rumination and traditional bullying experiences. Int J Ment Health Addict. 2019 Oct;17(5):1252-67.
54. Agatston PW, Kowalski R, Limber S. Students' perspectives on cyber bullying. J Adolesc Health. 2007;41(6 Suppl 1):S59-60.
55. Marret MJ, Choo WY. Factors associated with online victimisation among Malaysian adolescents who use social networking sites: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2017;7(6):e014959.
56. Zhou Z, Tang H, Tian Y, Wei H, Zhang F, Morrison CM. Cyberbullying and its risk factors among Chinese high school students. Sch Psychol Int. 2013;34(6):630-47.
| Files | ||
| Issue | Vol 16 No 3 (2021) | |
| Section | Original Article(s) | |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.18502/ijps.v16i3.6261 | |
| Keywords | ||
| Bullying Cyberbullying Internet Use Machiavellianism Narcissism Sex Self-Esteem Students | ||
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How to Cite
1.
Azami MS, Taremian F. Risk Factors Associated with Cyberbullying, Cybervictimization, and Cyberbullying-Victimization in Iran’s High School Students. Iran J Psychiatry. 2021;16(3):343-352.
